Conservation benefits of a marine protected area on South African chondrichthyans.

Chondrichthyans are threatened worldwide due to their life-history traits combined with a plethora of anthropogenic impacts that are causing populations to collapse. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a conservation option, but their efficacy for chondrichthyans is still unclear. Conservation efforts might be challenging especially in developing countries, due to a lack of resources and monitoring and limited data and stakeholder support. Here Baited Remote Underwater Stereo-Video systems (stereo-BRUVs) were deployed inside and outside a small partially protected MPA (Robberg MPA, Western Cape, South Africa) to assess the status of cartilaginous fishes' assemblages and to investigate the potential benefits derived from the presence of a marine reserve. Overall, 19 chondrichthyan species in 11 different families were observed. Chondrichthyans were observed in 78.5% of the sites and, of these, 89.7% of the MPA sites showed at least one chondrichthyan, while only in the 67.5% of surrounding exploited sites a cartilaginous fish was sighted. The presence of the MPA had a significant effect on the relative abundance of batoids, threatened species and local endemics, with more observations inside the MPA than outside, indicating the potential benefit of marine reserves on species that are more vulnerable to fishing pressure. Relative abundance was generally higher inside the bay than in the exposed area, and both relative abundance and species richness decreased significantly with depth. The analysis of the body length showed that the 35.5% of species had an average body length below maturity length, indicating that the area might be used as nursery ground for different species. This study provides evidence that MPAs, even though small and partially protected, can provide benefits for chondrichthyans, specifically to threatened species, endemic species and lesser-known species. Importantly, different environmental parameters must be considered to maximize the benefits an MPA can provide.

Addressing Criticisms of Large-Scale Marine Protected Areas.

Designated large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs, 100,000 or more square kilometers) constitute over two-thirds of the approximately 6.6% of the ocean and approximately 14.5% of the exclusive economic zones within marine protected areas. Although LSMPAs have received support among scientists and conservation bodies for wilderness protection, regional ecological connectivity, and improving resilience to climate change, there are also concerns. We identified 10 common criticisms of LSMPAs along three themes: (1) placement, governance, and management; (2) political expediency; and (3) social-ecological value and cost. Through critical evaluation of scientific evidence, we discuss the value, achievements, challenges, and potential of LSMPAs in these arenas. We conclude that although some criticisms are valid and need addressing, none pertain exclusively to LSMPAs, and many involve challenges ubiquitous in management. We argue that LSMPAs are an important component of a diversified management portfolio that tempers potential losses, hedges against uncertainty, and enhances the probability of achieving sustainably managed oceans.

The MPA Guide: A framework to achieve global goals for the ocean.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are conservation tools intended to protect biodiversity, promote healthy and resilient marine ecosystems, and provide societal benefits. Despite codification of MPAs in international agreements, MPA effectiveness is currently undermined by confusion about the many MPA types and consequent wildly differing outcomes. We present a clarifying science-driven framework­The MPA Guide­to aid design and evaluation. The guide categorizes MPAs by stage of establishment and level of protection, specifies the resulting direct and indirect outcomes for biodiversity and human well-being, and describes the key conditions necessary for positive outcomes. Use of this MPA Guide by scientists, managers, policy-makers, and communities can improve effective design, implementation, assessment, and tracking of existing and future MPAs to achieve conservation goals by using scientifically grounded practices.

Multi-scale multi-level marine spatial planning: A novel methodological approach applied in South Africa.

This study proposes and discusses a multi-scale spatial planning method implemented simultaneously at local and national level to prioritize ecosystem management actions across landscapes and seascapes. Mismatches in scale between the occurrence of biodiversity patterns and ecological processes, and the size and nature of the human footprint, and the different levels and scope of governance, are a significant challenge in conservation planning. These scale mismatches are further confounded by data resolution disparities across and amongst the different scales. To address this challenge, we developed a multi-resolution scale-linked marine spatial planning method. We tested this approach in the development of a Conservation Plan for a significant portion of South Africa's exclusive economic zone, adjacent to the east coast province of KwaZulu-Natal (the SeaPlan project). The study's dataset integrated the geographic distribution of 390 biodiversity elements (species, habitats, and oceanographic processes) and 38 human activities. A multi-resolution system of planning unit layers (PUL), with individual PUs ranging in resolution from 0.2 to 10 km, was designed to arrange and analyse these data. Spatial priorities for conservation were selected incrementally at different scales, contributing conservation targets from the fine-, medium- and large-scale analyses, and from the coast to the offshore. Compared to a basic single-resolution scale-unlinked plan, our multi-resolution scale-linked method selects 6% less conservation area to achieve the same targets. Compared to a multi-resolution scale-unlinked plan, our method requires only an additional 5% area. Overall, this method reflects the multi-scale nature of marine social-ecological systems more realistically, is relatively simple and replicable, and serves to better connect fine-scale and large-scale spatial management policies. We discuss the impacts of this study on protected area expansion planning processes in South Africa. This study showcases a methodological advance that has the potential to impact marine spatial planning practices and policies.