TMPRSS2-mediated SARS-CoV-2 uptake boosts innate immune activation, enhances cytopathology, and drives convergent virus evolution.

The accessory protease transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) enhances severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) uptake into ACE2-expressing cells, although how increased entry impacts downstream viral and host processes remains unclear. To investigate this in more detail, we performed infection assays in engineered cells promoting ACE2-mediated entry with and without TMPRSS2 coexpression. Electron microscopy and inhibitor experiments indicated TMPRSS2-mediated cell entry was associated with increased virion internalization into endosomes, and partially dependent upon clathrin-mediated endocytosis. TMPRSS2 increased panvariant uptake efficiency and enhanced early rates of virus replication, transcription, and secretion, with variant-specific profiles observed. On the host side, transcriptional profiling confirmed the magnitude of infection-induced antiviral and proinflammatory responses were linked to uptake efficiency, with TMPRSS2-assisted entry boosting early antiviral responses. In addition, TMPRSS2-enhanced infections increased rates of cytopathology, apoptosis, and necrosis and modulated virus secretion kinetics in a variant-specific manner. On the virus side, convergent signatures of cell-uptake-dependent innate immune induction were recorded in viral genomes, manifesting as switches in dominant coupled Nsp3 residues whose frequencies were correlated to the magnitude of the cellular response to infection. Experimentally, we demonstrated that selected Nsp3 mutations conferred enhanced interferon antagonism. More broadly, we show that TMPRSS2 orthologues from evolutionarily diverse mammals facilitate panvariant enhancement of cell uptake. In summary, our study uncovers previously unreported associations, linking cell entry efficiency to innate immune activation kinetics, cell death rates, virus secretion dynamics, and convergent selection of viral mutations. These data expand our understanding of TMPRSS2's role in the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle and confirm its broader significance in zoonotic reservoirs and animal models.

Cytosine base modifications regulate DNA duplex stability and metabolism.

DNA base modifications diversify the genome and are essential players in development. Yet, their influence on DNA physical properties and the ensuing effects on genome metabolism are poorly understood. Here, we focus on the interplay of cytosine modifications and DNA processes. We show by a combination of in vitro reactions with well-defined protein compositions and conditions, and in vivo experiments within the complex networks of the cell that cytosine methylation stabilizes the DNA helix, increasing its melting temperature and reducing DNA helicase and RNA/DNA polymerase speed. Oxidation of methylated cytosine, however, reverts the duplex stabilizing and genome metabolic effects to the level of unmodified cytosine. We detect this effect with DNA replication and transcription proteins originating from different species, ranging from prokaryotic and viral to the eukaryotic yeast and mammalian proteins. Accordingly, lack of cytosine methylation increases replication fork speed by enhancing DNA helicase unwinding speed in cells. We further validate that this cannot simply be explained by altered global DNA decondensation, changes in histone marks or chromatin structure and accessibility. We propose that the variegated deposition of cytosine modifications along the genome regulates DNA helix stability, thereby providing an elementary mechanism for local fine-tuning of DNA metabolism.

Validation strategies for antibodies targeting modified ribonucleotides.

Chemical modifications are found on almost all RNAs and affect their coding and noncoding functions. The identification of m6A on mRNA and its important role in gene regulation stimulated the field to investigate whether additional modifications are present on mRNAs. Indeed, modifications including m1A, m5C, m7G, 2'-OMe, and Ψ were detected. However, since their abundances are low and tools used for their corroboration are often not well characterized, their physiological relevance remains largely elusive. Antibodies targeting modified nucleotides are often used but have limitations such as low affinity or specificity. Moreover, they are not always well characterized and due to the low abundance of the modification, particularly on mRNAs, generated data sets might resemble noise rather than specific modification patterns. Therefore, it is critical that the affinity and specificity is rigorously tested using complementary approaches. Here, we provide an experimental toolbox that allows for testing antibody performance prior to their use.

Methyl-CpG binding domain protein 1 regulates localization and activity of Tet1 in a CXXC3 domain-dependent manner.

Cytosine modifications diversify and structure the genome thereby controlling proper development and differentiation. Here, we focus on the interplay of the 5-methylcytosine reader Mbd1 and modifier Tet1 by analyzing their dynamic subcellular localization and the formation of the Tet oxidation product 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in mammalian cells. Our results demonstrate that Mbd1 enhances Tet1-mediated 5-methylcytosine oxidation. We show that this is due to enhancing the localization of Tet1, but not of Tet2 and Tet3 at heterochromatic DNA. We find that the recruitment of Tet1 and concomitantly its catalytic activity eventually leads to the displacement of Mbd1 from methylated DNA. Finally, we demonstrate that increased Tet1 heterochromatin localization and 5-methylcytosine oxidation are dependent on the CXXC3 domain of Mbd1, which recognizes unmethylated CpG dinucleotides. The Mbd1 CXXC3 domain deletion isoform, which retains only binding to methylated CpGs, on the other hand, blocks Tet1-mediated 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine conversion, indicating opposite biological effects of Mbd1 isoforms. Our study provides new insights on how cytosine modifications, their modifiers and readers cross-regulate themselves.

Binding of MBD proteins to DNA blocks Tet1 function thereby modulating transcriptional noise.

Aberrant DNA methylation is a hallmark of various human disorders, indicating that the spatial and temporal regulation of methylation readers and modifiers is imperative for development and differentiation. In particular, the cross-regulation between 5-methylcytosine binders (MBD) and modifiers (Tet) has not been investigated. Here, we show that binding of Mecp2 and Mbd2 to DNA protects 5-methylcytosine from Tet1-mediated oxidation. The mechanism is not based on competition for 5-methylcytosine binding but on Mecp2 and Mbd2 directly restricting Tet1 access to DNA. We demonstrate that the efficiency of this process depends on the number of bound MBDs per DNA molecule. Accordingly, we find 5-hydroxymethylcytosine enriched at heterochromatin of Mecp2-deficient neurons of a mouse model for Rett syndrome and Tet1-induced reexpression of silenced major satellite repeats. These data unveil fundamental regulatory mechanisms of Tet enzymes and their potential pathophysiological role in Rett syndrome. Importantly, it suggests that Mecp2 and Mbd2 have an essential physiological role as guardians of the epigenome.

In situ Quantification of Cytosine Modification Levels in Heterochromatic Domains of Cultured Mammalian Cells.

Epigenetic modifications of DNA, and especially cytosine, play a crucial role in regulating basic cellular processes and thereby the overall cellular metabolism. Their levels change during organismic and cellular development, but especially also in pathogenic aberrations such as cancer. Levels of respective modifications are often addressed in bulk by specialized mass spectrometry techniques or by employing dedicated ChIP-seq protocols, with the latter giving information about the sequence context of the modification. However, to address modification levels on a single cell basis, high- or low-content microscopy techniques remain the preferred methodology. The protocol presented here describes a straightforward method to detect and quantify different DNA modifications in human cell lines, which can also be adapted to other cultured mammalian cell types. To this end, cells are immunostained against two different cytosine modifications in combination with DNA counterstaining. Image acquisition takes place on a confocal microscopy system. A semi-automated analysis pipeline helps to gather data in a fast and reliable fashion. The protocol is comparatively simple, fast, and cost effective. By employing methodologies that are often well established in most molecular biology laboratories, many researchers are able to apply the described protocol straight away in-house.

A Bivalent Trans-Amplifying RNA Vaccine Candidate Induces Potent Chikungunya and Ross River Virus Specific Immune Responses.

Alphaviruses such as the human pathogenic chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and Ross River virus (RRV) can cause explosive outbreaks raising public health concerns. However, no vaccine or specific antiviral treatment is yet available. We recently established a CHIKV vaccine candidate based on trans-amplifying RNA (taRNA). This novel system consists of a replicase-encoding mRNA and a trans-replicon (TR) RNA encoding the antigen. The TR-RNA is amplified by the replicase in situ. We were interested in determining whether multiple TR-RNAs can be amplified in parallel and if, thus, a multivalent vaccine candidate can be generated. In vitro, we observed an efficient amplification of two TR-RNAs, encoding for the CHIKV and the RRV envelope proteins, by the replicase, which resulted in a high antigen expression. Vaccination of BALB/c mice with the two TR-RNAs induced CHIKV- and RRV-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. However, antibody titers and neutralization capacity were higher after immunization with a single TR-RNA. In contrast, alphavirus-specific T cell responses were equally potent after the bivalent vaccination. These data show the proof-of-principle that the taRNA system can be used to generate multivalent vaccines; however, further optimizations will be needed for clinical application.

The SARS-CoV-2 Variant Omicron Is Able to Escape Vaccine-Induced Humoral Immune Responses, but Is Counteracted by Booster Vaccination.

The SARS-CoV-2 variant Omicron has spread world-wide and is responsible for rapid increases in infections, including in populations with high vaccination rates. Here, we analysed in the sera of vaccinated individuals the antibody binding to the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein and the neutralization of wild-type (WT), Delta (B.1.617.2), and Omicron (B.1.1.529; BA.1) pseudotyped vectors. Although sera from individuals immunized with vector vaccines (Vaxzevria; AZ and COVID-19 Janssen, Ad26.COV2.S; J&J) were able to bind and neutralize WT and Delta, they showed only background levels towards Omicron. In contrast, mRNA (Comirnaty; BNT) or heterologous (AZ/BNT) vaccines induced weak, but detectable responses against Omicron. While RBD-binding antibody levels decreased significantly six months after full vaccination, the SARS-CoV-2 RBD-directed avidity remained constant. However, this still coincided with a significant decrease in neutralization activity against all variants. A third booster vaccination with BNT significantly increased the humoral immune responses against all tested variants, including Omicron. In conclusion, only vaccination schedules that included at least one dose of mRNA vaccine and especially an mRNA booster vaccination induced sufficient antibody levels with neutralization capacity against multiple variants, including Omicron.

Isoform-specific and ubiquitination dependent recruitment of Tet1 to replicating heterochromatin modulates methylcytosine oxidation.

Oxidation of the epigenetic DNA mark 5-methylcytosine by Tet dioxygenases is an established route to diversify the epigenetic information, modulate gene expression and overall cellular (patho-)physiology. Here, we demonstrate that Tet1 and its short isoform Tet1s exhibit distinct nuclear localization during DNA replication resulting in aberrant cytosine modification levels in human and mouse cells. We show that Tet1 is tethered away from heterochromatin via its zinc finger domain, which is missing in Tet1s allowing its targeting to these regions. We find that Tet1s interacts with and is ubiquitinated by CRL4(VprBP). The ubiquitinated Tet1s is then recognized by Uhrf1 and recruited to late replicating heterochromatin. This leads to spreading of 5-methylcytosine oxidation to heterochromatin regions, LINE 1 activation and chromatin decondensation. In summary, we elucidate a dual regulation mechanism of Tet1, contributing to the understanding of how epigenetic information can be diversified by spatio-temporal directed Tet1 catalytic activity.

Longitudinal Analysis of Coronavirus-Neutralizing Activity in COVID-19 Patients.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has now been continuing for more than two years. The infection causes COVID-19, a disease of the respiratory and cardiovascular system of variable severity. Here, the humoral immune response of 80 COVID-19 patients from the University Hospital Frankfurt/Main, Germany, was characterized longitudinally. The SARS-CoV-2 neutralization activity of serum waned over time. The neutralizing potential of serum directed towards the human alpha-coronavirus NL-63 (NL63) also waned, indicating that no cross-priming against alpha-coronaviruses occurred. A subset of the recovered patients (n = 13) was additionally vaccinated with the mRNA vaccine Comirnaty. Vaccination increased neutralization activity against SARS-CoV-2 wild-type (WT), Delta, and Omicron, although Omicron-specific neutralization was not detectable prior to vaccination. In addition, the vaccination induced neutralizing antibodies against the more distantly related SARS-CoV-1 but not against NL63. The results indicate that although SARS-CoV-2 humoral immune responses induced by infection wane, vaccination induces a broad neutralizing activity against multiple SARS-CoVs, but not to the common cold alpha-coronavirus NL63.

Comparative Investigation of Methods for Analysis of SARS-CoV-2-Spike-Specific Antisera.

In light of an increasing number of vaccinated and convalescent individuals, there is a major need for the development of robust methods for the quantification of neutralizing antibodies; although, a defined correlate of protection is still missing. Sera from hospitalized COVID-19 patients suffering or not suffering from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) were comparatively analyzed by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) and pseudotype-based neutralization assays to quantify their neutralizing capacity. The two neutralization assays showed comparable data. In case of the non-ARDS sera, there was a distinct correlation between the data from the neutralization assays on the one hand, and enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA), as well as biophysical analyses, on the other hand. As such, surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based assays for quantification of binding antibodies or analysis of the stability of the antigen-antibody interaction and inhibition of syncytium formation, determined by cell fusion assays, were performed. In the case of ARDS sera, which are characterized by a significantly higher fraction of RBD-binding IgA antibodies, there is a clear correlation between the neutralization assays and the ELISA data. In contrast to this, a less clear correlation between the biophysical analyses on the one hand and ELISAs and neutralization assays on the other hand was observed, which might be explained by the heterogeneity of the antibodies. To conclude, for less complex immune sera-as in cases of non-ARDS sera-combinations of titer quantification by ELISA with inhibition of syncytium formation, SPR-based analysis of antibody binding, determination of the stability of the antigen-antibody complex, and competition of the RBD-ACE2 binding represent alternatives to the classic PRNT for analysis of the neutralizing potential of SARS-CoV-2-specific sera, without the requirement for a BSL3 facility.

Carcinomas with Occult Metastasis Potential: Diagnosis/Prognosis Accuracy Improvement by Means of Force Spectroscopy.

Accurate diagnosis of cancer stage is inevitable for the following prognosis in patients struggling with these lesions to promote their health and survival rate. Previous studies on survival rate statistics show, in some cases, failure in cancer stage surveys in which metastasis or recurrence of the disease was not accurately prognosed. Morphology study of cancer cells advances the understanding about cancer behavior and its progression, in which, in our previous study on invasive cancer cells, fewer formations of cytoskeleton components compared to their counterparts was observed. Here it is shown that carcinomas with an occult propensity of metastasis depict a number of poorly differentiated cells with decreased amounts of cytoskeleton components in a near-well differentiated population. Force spectroscopy in conjunction with fluorescence microscopy of lung cancer, liver hepatoma, and melanoma provides a general view of these cells' architecture, leading to the conclusion that the scarce abnormal-shaped cells with low formation of structural filaments convey the high risk of metastatic potential of the tumor. The results demonstrate that force spectroscopy complements conventional diagnostic approaches by an accurate cytoskeleton assessment and can improve the following prognosis in epithelial cancers with occult metastasis risk.

DNA Modification Readers and Writers and Their Interplay.

Genomic DNA is modified in a postreplicative manner and several modifications, the enzymes responsible for their deposition as well as proteins that read these modifications, have been described. Here, we focus on the impact of DNA modifications on the DNA helix and review the writers and readers of cytosine modifications and how they interplay to shape genome composition, stability, and function.

Mitotic entry upon Topo II catalytic inhibition is controlled by Chk1 and Plk1.

Catalytic inhibition of topoisomerase II during G2 phase delays onset of mitosis due to the activation of the so-called decatenation checkpoint. This checkpoint is less known compared with the extensively studied G2 DNA damage checkpoint and is partially compromised in many tumor cells. We recently identified MCPH1 as a key regulator that confers cells with the capacity to adapt to the decatenation checkpoint. In the present work, we have explored the contributions of checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1) and polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1), in order to better understand the molecular basis of decatenation checkpoint. Our results demonstrate that Chk1 function is required to sustain the G2 arrest induced by catalytic inhibition of Topo II. Interestingly, Chk1 loss of function restores adaptation in cells lacking MCPH1. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Plk1 function is required to bypass the decatenation checkpoint arrest in cells following Chk1 inhibition. Taken together, our data suggest that MCPH1 is critical to allow checkpoint adaptation by counteracting Chk1-mediated inactivation of Plk1. Importantly, we also provide evidence that MCPH1 function is not required to allow recovery from this checkpoint, which lends support to the notion that checkpoint adaptation and recovery are different mechanisms distinguished in part by specific effectors.

DNA base flipping analytical pipeline.

DNA base modifications and mutations are observed in all genomes throughout the kingdoms of life. Proteins involved in their establishment and removal were shown to use a base flipping mechanism to access their substrates. To better understand how proteins flip DNA bases to modify or remove them, we optimized and developed a pipeline of methods to step-by-step detect the process starting with protein-DNA interaction, base flipping itself and the ensuing DNA base modification or excision. As methylcytosine is the best-studied DNA modification, here we focus on the process of writing, modifying and reading this DNA base. Using multicolor electrophoretic mobility shift assays, we show that the methylcytosine modifier Tet1 exhibits little DNA sequence specificity with only a slight preference for methylated CpG containing DNA. A combination of chloroacetaldehyde treatment and high-resolution melting temperature analysis allowed us to detect base flipping induced by the methylcytosine modifier Tet1 as well as the methylcytosine writer M.HpaII. Finally, we show that high-resolution melting temperature analysis can be used to detect the activity of glycosylases, methyltransferases and dioxigenases on DNA substrates. Taken together, this DNA base flipping analytical pipeline (BaFAP) provide a complete toolbox for the fast and sensitive analysis of proteins that bind, flip and modify or excise DNA bases.

L1 retrotransposition is activated by Ten-eleven-translocation protein 1 and repressed by methyl-CpG binding proteins.

One of the major functions of DNA methylation is the repression of transposable elements, such as the long-interspersed nuclear element 1 (L1). The underlying mechanism(s), however, are unclear. Here, we addressed how retrotransposon activation and mobilization are regulated by methyl-cytosine modifying ten-eleven-translocation (Tet) proteins and how this is modulated by methyl-CpG binding domain (MBD) proteins. We show that Tet1 activates both, endogenous and engineered L1 retrotransposons. Furthermore, we found that Mecp2 and Mbd2 repress Tet1-mediated activation of L1 by preventing 5hmC formation at the L1 promoter. Finally, we demonstrate that the methyl-CpG binding domain, as well as the adjacent non-sequence specific DNA binding domain of Mecp2 are each sufficient to mediate repression of Tet1-induced L1 mobilization. Our study reveals a mechanism how L1 elements get activated in the absence of Mecp2 and suggests that Tet1 may contribute to Mecp2/Mbd2-deficiency phenotypes, such as the Rett syndrome. We propose that the balance between methylation "reader" and "eraser/writer" controls L1 retrotransposition.

Generation of an alpaca-derived nanobody recognizing γ-H2AX.

Post-translational modifications are difficult to visualize in living cells and are conveniently analyzed using antibodies. Single-chain antibody fragments derived from alpacas and called nanobodies can be expressed and bind to the target antigenic sites in living cells. As a proof of concept, we generated and characterized nanobodies against the commonly used biomarker for DNA double strand breaks γ-H2AX. In vitro and in vivo characterization showed the specificity of the γ-H2AX nanobody. Mammalian cells were transfected with fluorescent fusions called chromobodies and DNA breaks induced by laser microirradiation. We found that alternative epitope recognition and masking of the epitope in living cells compromised the chromobody function. These pitfalls should be considered in the future development and screening of intracellular antibody biomarkers.