An examination of cultural-linguistic influences on PPVT-4 performance in African American and Hispanic preschoolers from low-income communities.

In this study, we examined potential influences of cultural and linguistic background on PPVT-4 performance in a community sample of preschool-age children from low-SES households. We did this by evaluating PPVT-4 item-level performance across African American and Hispanic children from low-income families. We compared PPVT-4 item-level performance for 332 Hispanic and African American children (Mage = 48 months) using Wald chi-square tests of independence. There were clinically significant differences in accuracy on 14 PPVT-4 test items with most favouring the African American group. We then looked at the relationship between African American English use and PPVT-4 scores for a subset of 113 African American children (Mage = 49.9 months). A correlational analysis with PPVT-4 standard scores and a dialect density measure (DDM) in narratives revealed no association between these measures. We concluded that there were potential cultural-linguistic biases in PPVT-4 items that were not explained by income alone for the young Hispanic children.

Clinical impact of wordless picture storybooks on bilingual narrative language production: A comparison of the 'Frog' stories.

BACKGROUND: Language sampling, recognized as a gold standard for expressive language assessment, is often elicited using wordless picture storybooks. A series of wordless storybooks, commonly referred to as 'Frog' stories, have been frequently used in language-based research with children from around the globe. AIMS: To examine the impact that differences in stories have on narrative output by comparing narrative productions across a series of five storybooks produced by 831 bilingual (Spanish-English) children in kindergarten through third grade. METHODS & PROCEDURES: Each participant produced oral narratives using one of the five Frog storybooks in both English and Spanish. The narratives were recorded, transcribed and coded for a variety of measures of language production. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: Negligible differences were observed in language measures when comparing groups of children who told different stories, with the exception of lexical diversity. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: The implications of using different storybooks to elicit narrative language samples from children are discussed from the perspectives of research and clinical practice.

The role of dialect density in nonword repetition performance: an examination with at-risk African American preschool children.

The Nonword Repetition Task (NRT) is considered to be a less-biased language measure for children from cultural minority groups. In the current study, we examined NRT performance of 50 at-risk, preschool-age children who spoke African American English (AAE). In addition to the NRT, measures included AAE dialect density and several standardised language tests. The primary aim was to determine significant contributors to NRT performance. We hypothesised that the language measures would significantly contribute to NRT performance while dialect density would be an insignificant contributor. Contrary to our predictions, dialect density was a unique and significant predictor of NRT performance (in addition to phonological awareness), while the language measures were not significant predictors. The current findings cast doubt on categorising the NRT as a less-biased language assessment for AAE-speaking preschoolers; however, the NRT may have potential as a screener for identifying preschoolers at risk for delays in literacy acquisition.

How Inclusive Practice Increases the Educational Relevance of Individualized Education Programs.

PURPOSE: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act guidelines for Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) require that students with disabilities should, to the fullest extent appropriate, receive services that promote academic achievement that are delivered within the general educational environment. In this clinical focus article, we will demonstrate how the inclusive practice service delivery model can assist speech-language pathologists (SLPs) with the development of educationally relevant IEPs. METHOD: Twelve SLPs who saw at least 30% of their students in a general education context shared their perspectives on inclusive practice. Their responses were transcribed and coded using deductive qualitative analysis. Their insights were combined with relevant literature to demonstrate how inclusive practice promotes educationally relevant IEPs. RESULTS: We provided practical examples of using curriculum-based assessments and academic standards to gauge students' present levels of academic and functional performance. We next described how engaging with the school community and observing students in the educational environment assists with determining the effects of a student's disability on academic achievement and functional performance. We concluded by describing how an inclusive mindset helps to align services to meet students' needs. CONCLUSION: An inclusive framework can help create IEPs that promote students' access, engagement, and progress in age or grade-level curriculum, instruction, and environments by highlighting the impact of a disability on academic achievement and functional performance. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.24354319.

Comparing Measures From Computer-Administered and Examiner-Administered Narrative Retells in Spanish: A Pilot Study.

PURPOSE: Narrative language sample analysis (LSA) is a recommended best practice for the assessment of monolingual and bilingual children. With business-as-usual narrative LSA, examiners are actively involved in all aspects of the elicitation. Software advancements have shown multiple benefits of computer-administered language assessments, some of which may be beneficial for narrative assessments, particularly for bilingual children. The goal of this pilot study was to test the feasibility of computer-administered narrative retells in bilingual children. METHOD: Ten English-Spanish bilingual children, kindergarten to fourth grade, completed two narrative retells using wordless picture books (Frog Goes to Dinner and Frog on His Own) in two conditions: examiner-administered and computer-administered. Five narrative measures were generated from these 20 transcripts. RESULTS: Significant, strong correlations were observed between the two elicitation methods for four of the five measures. We completed a series of Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests and found no significant differences in measures across the elicitation methods. Follow-up descriptive analyses revealed few large differences across elicitation methods for the individual participants. CONCLUSION: This study provides preliminary evidence on the use of a computer-administered narrative procedure and motivates further research on the method to confirm its validity and to document its effectiveness within clinical practice. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.20346648.

Dynamic Norming for Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts.

PURPOSE: This exploratory study sought to establish the psychometric stability of a dynamic norming system using the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT) databases. Dynamic norming is the process by which clinicians select a subset of the normative database sample matched to their individual client's demographic characteristics. METHOD: The English Conversation and Student-Selected Story (SSS) Narrative databases from SALT were used to conduct the analyses in two phases. Phase 1 was an exploratory examination of the standard error of measure (SEM) of six clinically relevant transcript metrics at predetermined sampling intervals to determine (a) whether the dynamic norming process resulted in samples with adequate stability and (b) the minimum sample size required for stable results. Phase 2 was confirmatory, as random samples were taken from the SALT databases to simulate clinical comparison samples. These samples were examined (a) for stability of SEM estimations and (b) to confirm the sample size findings from Phase 1. RESULTS: Results of Phase 1 indicated that the SEMs for the six transcript metrics across both databases were low relative to each metric's scale. Samples as small as 40-50 children in the Conversation database and 20-30 children in the SSS Narrative database resulted in stable SEM estimations. Phase 2 confirmed these findings, indicating that age bands as small as ±4 months from a given center-point resulted in stable estimations provided there were approximately 35 children or more in the comparison sample. CONCLUSION: Psychometrically stable comparison samples can be achieved using SALT's dynamic norming system that are much smaller than the standard sample size recommended in most tests of children's language.

Identification of Gaps in Training, Research, and School-Based Practice: A Survey of School-Based Speech-Language Pathologists.

Purpose Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) encounter many challenges in the school environment. We sought to identify school-based SLPs' needs in the areas of training and research to support school-based practice. Method We collected surveys from 145 school-based SLPs practicing in Wisconsin. Respondents were asked to describe aspects of preservice training that most and least prepared them for school-based practice. Respondents next described training needs for early-career SLPs and desired topics for general professional development. Respondents then described research topics that require further study to advance school-based practice. After completing this series of open-ended questions, the respondents completed a series of preferential-ranking questions about general needs for training and research. We employed mixed methods to analyze the data, using grounded theory for the qualitative analysis. Results During preservice training, respondents most valued the applied aspects of their training. Respondents noted that early-career SLPs require significant support, particularly with the professional responsibilities of school-based practice (e.g., individualized education programs, interprofessional practice, and scheduling). When describing general professional development and research needs, the respondents placed high value on practical topics that have clear implications for school-based practice. Conclusions Understanding the perceived needs of school-based SLPs can assist in designing training supports and ensuring that the developing evidence base is relevant to SLPs practicing in the schools. This exploration-stage study established a foundation for future testing of implementation initiatives to fill gaps in school-based practice.

Properties of Spoken Persuasive Language Samples From Typically Developing Adolescents.

Purpose Persuasive communication skills are vital for achieving success in school, at work, and in social relationships. To facilitate assessment of persuasive discourse, we developed a clinically feasible persuasive speaking protocol and used it to compile a database of language samples. This database allowed us to describe the properties of adolescents' persuasive speaking skills. Method We collected spoken language samples from 179 typically developing students in Grades 8-12, recruited from the United States and Australia. Participants were asked to persuade an authority figure to make a change in a rule or policy. Results Language performance data reflecting both microstructural and macrostructural properties of spoken language were summarized and broken down by grade. We completed a factor analysis that documented three latent variables (syntax, discourse difficulties, and content). To test the validity of the persuasive measures, a subset of the participants completed an additional battery of assessments, which revealed weak to moderate relationships between the persuasive measures, general language ability, and working memory. There was no significant relationship between the persuasive language measures and an assessment of personality. Conclusion Our persuasive language sampling protocol facilitated the collection of valid language performance data. The summary data can be used as benchmarks for clinical evaluations of adolescents suspected of having language difficulties.

Utility of the MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventory in identifying language abilities of late-talking and typically developing toddlers.

The present study investigated the validity of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI) for a group of toddlers 30 months of age. Study 1 examined the concurrent validity of the CDI for a group of 38 late talkers. Significant correlations were found between the CDI and direct measures of language abilities. Study 2 used likelihood ratio analysis to determine how well the CDI sorted 100 toddlers (38 late talkers and 62 children with a history of normal language development) according to language status based on direct assessment measures. The analyses showed that the CDI was effective in identifying children with low language skills up to the 11th percentile and in identifying children with normal language skills above the 49th percentile.

The rules of the game: properties of a database of expository language samples.

PURPOSE: The authors created a database of expository oral language samples with the aims of describing the nature of students' expository discourse and providing benchmark data for typically developing preteen and teenage students. METHOD: Using a favorite game or sport protocol, language samples were collected from 235 typically developing students in Grades 5, 6, 7, and 9. Twelve language measures were summarized from this database and analyses were completed to test for differences across ages and topics. To determine whether distinct dimensions of oral language could be captured with language measures from these expository samples, a factor analysis was completed. RESULTS: Modest differences were observed in language measures across ages and topics. The language measures were effectively classified into four distinct dimensions: syntactic complexity, expository content, discourse difficulties, and lexical diversity. CONCLUSION: Analysis of expository data provides a functional and curriculum-based assessment that has the potential to allow clinicians to document multiple dimensions of children's expressive language skills. Further development and testing of the database will establish the feasibility of using it to compare individual students' expository discourse skills to those of their typically developing peers.

Stability of measures from children's interviews: the effects of time, sample length, and topic.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability of, and sources of variability in, language measures from interviews collected from young school-age children. METHOD: Two 10-min interviews were collected from 20 at-risk kindergarten children by an examiner using a standardized set of questions. Test-retest reliability coefficients were calculated for 8 language measures. Generalizability theory (G-theory) analyses were completed to document the variability introduced into the measures from the child, session, sample length, and topic. RESULTS: Significant and strong reliability correlation coefficients were observed for most of the language sample measures. The G-theory analyses revealed that most of the variance in the language measures was attributed to the child. Session, sample length, and topic accounted for negligible amounts of variance in most of the language measures. CONCLUSION: Measures from interviews were reliable across sessions, and the sample length and topic did not have a substantial impact on the reliability of the language measures. Implications regarding the clinical feasibility of language sample analysis for assessment and progress monitoring are discussed.

Using language sample databases.

PURPOSE: Over the past 50 years, language sample analysis (LSA) has evolved from a powerful research tool that is used to document children's linguistic development into a powerful clinical tool that is used to identify and describe the language skills of children with language impairment. The The Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT; J. F. Miller & A. Iglesias, 2008) Software Project has developed several databases of language samples from more than 6,000 typical speakers. This article presents an overview of the SALT databases and then demonstrates the power of these databases in classifying children with language impairment. METHOD: Conversational language samples were elicited from 244 children with language impairment who were between 3 and 13 years of age. Language production measures generated from these transcripts were compared to measures from 244 transcripts in the SALT conversational database. A series of discriminant function analyses were completed to document the sensitivity and specificity of the language sample measures. RESULTS: The language sample measures were effective in classifying children based on their language status, with correct identification of 78% of the children with language impairment and 85% of the children who were typically developing. CONCLUSION: The SALT databases provide a useful tool for the clinical management of children with language impairment.

Properties of the narrative scoring scheme using narrative retells in young school-age children.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the clinical utility of the narrative scoring scheme (NSS) as an index of narrative macrostructure for young school-age children. METHOD: Oral retells of a wordless picture book were elicited from 129 typically developing children, ages 5-7. A series of correlations and hierarchical regression equations were completed using microstructural measures of vocabulary and grammar to predict NSS scores. RESULTS: While the NSS was significantly correlated with age and each of the microstructural measures, the hierarchical regression analyses revealed a unique relationship between vocabulary and narrative macrostructure. CONCLUSION: The NSS is an efficient and informative tool for documenting children's development of narrative macrostructure. The relationship between the NSS and microstructural measures demonstrates that it is a robust measure of children's overall oral narrative competence and a powerful tool for clinicians and researchers. The unique relationship between lexical diversity and the NSS confirmed that a special relationship exists between vocabulary and narrative organization skills in young school-age children.

Language sampling: does the length of the transcript matter?

PURPOSE: Language sample analysis is considered by many to be the gold standard for documenting children's oral language skills. One limitation, however, is the time required for collection and transcription of language samples. The goal of this study was to determine if stable language sample measures could be generated using relatively short language samples. METHOD: Measures were generated from children's conversational and narrative language samples after they were broken into three lengths (1-, 3-, and 7-min samples). The measures were compared to determine the stability of measures from the short samples (1 and 3 min) when compared to measures from the long sample (7 min). The measures were further analyzed to determine if differences across transcript cuts varied as a function of age group (2;8 [years;months]-5;11 vs. 6;0-13;3) or sampling context (conversation vs. narrative). RESULTS: Overall, the language sample measures were quite consistent across the transcript cuts. Measures of productivity, lexical diversity, and utterance length were the most reliable when short samples were used. CONCLUSION: Implications for the efficient use of language sample analysis in clinical protocols are discussed. A framework for eliciting reliable short samples is provided.