Growth mindset, persistence, and self-efficacy in early adolescents: Associations with depression, anxiety, and externalising behaviours.

ABSTRACTGrowth mindset, persistence, and self-efficacy are important protective factors in understanding adolescent psychopathology, including depression, anxiety, and externalising behaviours. Previous studies have shown that dimensions of self-efficacy (academic, social, and emotional) have differential protective effects with mental health outcomes and these differences vary by sex. This study examines the dimensional mediation of self-efficacy from motivational mindsets on anxiety, depression, and externalising behaviours in a sample of early adolescents ages 10-11. Surveys were administered to participants to measure growth mindset and persistence on internalising and externalising symptoms. The Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children (SEQ-C) was used to measure domains of self-efficacy for mediation analysis. Multi-group structural equation modelling by sex indicated that structural paths were not invariant by sex. Significant direct effects were identified from persistence to externalising behaviours in boys, and significant direct effects were identified from growth mindset to depression in girls. In a sample of Tanzanian early adolescents, self-efficacy mediates the protective association between motivational mindsets on psychopathology. Higher academic self-efficacy was associated with reduced externalising problems in both boys and girls. Implications for adolescent programmes and future research are discussed.

Risk and protective factors for mental health and wellbeing among adolescent orphans.

Background: Research has demonstrated the importance of understanding risk factors for mental health and wellbeing. Less research has focused on protective factors that protect mental health and promote wellbeing in diverse contexts. Estimating structural paths from risk protective factors to psychopathology and wellbeing can inform prioritization of targeted investment in adolescent health programs that seek to modify factors that are most closely associated with mental wellbeing. Study objective: The purpose of this study was to examine risk factors (e.g. emotional neglect, emotional abuse, physical neglect, stigma) and protective factors (e.g. community relationships, self-esteem, and autonomy) among adolescent orphans, protective associations with depression, anxiety and externalizing behaviors and promotive associations with hope, happiness, and health. Methods: The analytic sample was collected between January and March of 2019 and included 350 adolescent orphans ages 10-15 from three districts in Tanzania. Participants completed survey interviews, 75-90 min in length, that measured risk and protective factors, psychological symptoms, and mental wellbeing measures. Results: Results of the fitted structural equation model indicated that structural paths from protective factors to psychopathology (ß = -0.53, p = 0.015) and mental wellbeing (ß = 0.72, p = 0.014) outcomes were significant. Structural paths from risk factors to psychopathology (ß = -0.34, p = 0.108) and mental wellbeing (ß = -0.24, p = 0.405) were not significant. Conclusion: In a sample of vulnerable youth, protective factors (e.g. community relationships, self-esteem, and autonomy) were significantly associated with reduced depression, anxiety and externalizing behaviors and increased hope, happiness, and health in a structural equation model that included risk factors (emotional neglect, emotional abuse, physical neglect). Results suggest that strong community relationships, self-esteem and autonomy may be important modifiable factors to target in intervention programs aimed at supporting adolescent mental wellbeing.

A developmental analysis of dimensions of empathy during early adolescence: Behavioral empathy but not cognitive empathy is associated with lower psychopathology.

Construct definitions of empathy have sought to distinguish between different dimensions of empathetic capacity that are significantly associated with psychological distress or wellbeing. Research has provided substantial evidence differentiating affective and cognitive empathy; however, more recent research has cited the importance of a third domain represented by empathetic behaviors and compassionate intent to comfort others. Examining developmental and maturational stage during the rapid transitional period of early adolescence is needed to model developmental trajectories, mechanisms of change and mental health outcomes. This study aims to assess relationships between pubertal developmental stage, dimensions of empathy, and depression, anxiety and externalizing behaviors among early adolescents. A cross-sectional survey among young adolescents ages 9-12 years was conducted in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The relationships between pubertal developmental stage, affective, cognitive, and behavioral empathy scores and internalizing and externalizing symptoms were evaluated using hierarchical regression modeling. Structural equation modeling was used to test a theoretical model of structural paths between these variables. A sample of 579 very young adolescents (270 boys and 309 girls) aged 9-12 years participated in the study. Pubertal development scale scores were associated with affective, cognitive, and behavioral empathy. Adolescents who had greater behavioral empathy scores reported lower internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Adolescents who had transitioned further through puberty and had higher cognitive empathy scores and reported higher internalizing symptoms. These findings support the importance of pubertal developmental stage in assessing risk and protective paths to mental health during adolescence. While empathetic capacity is widely perceived to be a positive trait, dimensional analysis of empathy among early adolescents indicates that behavioral skills and compassionate acts may be particularly protective and promote positive mental health outcomes.

Psychometric properties of the empathy questionnaire for children and adolescents in a sample of Tanzanian adolescents.

Construct definitions of empathy have sought to distinguish between different domains of empathetic capacity that are related to psychological distress or wellbeing. This study aims to validate the psychometric properties of the Empathy Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (EmQue-CA) and to test for measurement invariance by gender in a sample of 579 very young adolescents (270 boys and 309 girls) ages 9-12 from Tanzania. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were completed to assess the factor analytic structure of the EmQue-CA, indicating a three-factor model fit these data well. Concurrent validity was demonstrated through strong significant correlations with prosocial behavior and generosity measures. Convergent validity indicated the behavioral subdimension of empathy, intent to comfort, was significantly and negatively associated with externalizing behaviors. Measurement invariance by gender was not supported for these data due to configural invariance in covariance between cognitive empathy and intent to comfort latent constructs. These findings confirm the EmQue-CA is an important measure of three dimensions of empathy; affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and behavioral empathy (intent to comfort) in a sample of Tanzanian adolescents.