Anemia and quality of life including anemia-related symptoms in patients with solid tumors in clinical practice.

The aim of this study was to explore in a clinical setting the association between hemoglobin (Hb) level and quality of life (QoL) including anemia-related symptoms in patients with cancer disease. The study was performed in the outpatient units at the Oncology Clinic, Karolinska University Hospital, during spring 2004. One hundred-sixty patients responded to the questionnaires and Hb levels were available in 133 of their medical files. Anemia was not a common problem as only 12 out of 133 patients had an Hb level below 110 g/L. The Hb level was not related to general QoL but to FACT-An Trial Outcome Index (rs = 0.186, p = 0.036), measuring anemia-related symptoms as well as functional and physical well-being. However, two patients with Hb < 110 g/L had minor anemia-related symptoms (FACT AnS > or = 40), while 22 patients with Hb > or = 110 g/L had more pronounced symptoms (FACT AnS < 40). There was no difference in anemia-related symptoms between patients with and without ongoing cancer treatment, but patients with ongoing cancer treatment had decreased physical (p = 0.025) and functional (p = 0.011) well-being as compared to those without ongoing treatment. Patients with lung cancer on cancer treatment had lower FACT-An Trial Outcome Index than patients with breast cancer on treatment (mean values 71.8 and 99.1 for patients with lung and breast cancer, respectively, p = 0.009), and also a tendency to lower Hb levels (mean values 119 and 127 for patients with lung and breast cancer, respectively, p = 0.052). Physical and functional aspects might be more important to consider than increasing the Hb level to reduce the fatigue.

Interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment of ex vivo human carcinoma cells potentiates their interaction with allogeneic lymphocytes.

Short-term exposure of ex vivo carcinoma and sarcoma cells to IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha induced or elevated to detectable levels the surface expression of MHC class I, class II, and ICAM-1 (CD54), but only rarely the B7 (CD80) molecules. The cytokine-treated tumor cells interacted more efficiently with allogeneic blood lymphocytes collected from healthy donors compared with untreated cells. This was demonstrated (1) by the induction of DNA synthesis and generation of cytotoxic activity in mixed cultures and (2) by the elevated susceptibility to the cytotoxic effectors. Although the cytokine-induced increase in MHC and ICAM-1 on the low-expressor tumors were probably important to the interaction with lymphocytes, it is likely that other properties were also induced that contributed to the phenomenon. This was indicated by the results obtained with several tumors that expressed indigenously high levels of these molecules but reacted with the allogeneic lymphocytes only or more efficiently after treatment with IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha. In these experiments B7 expression did not influence the efficiency of interactions between lymphocyte and tumor cells. The results also showed that, under the conditions used, the untreated tumor cells that did not activate allogeneic lymphocytes were sensitive to appropriately activated effectors. Thus the afferent and efferent arms of lymphocyte-tumor cell interactions appeared to have different requirements.

Clinical relevance of the CA 125 assay in monitoring of ovarian cancer patients.

CA 125 levels were measured longitudinally during treatment and follow-up of 248 epithelial ovarian cancer patients referred to the Department of Gynecological Oncology at Radiumhemmet, Stockholm, from 1984 to 1986. The aim of the study was to evaluate the value of CA 125 monitoring in clinical practice according to tumor burden at the time of referral to Radiumhemmet, the correlation of CA 125 values to tumor mass at second-look laparotomy, the lead time between increasing CA 125 values and tumor relapse, and the predictivity of normal CA 125 values after completion of first-line therapy. Ninety-one percent (32/35) of patients with a tumor volume greater than 5 cm at referral had elevated CA 125 values; 62% (22/35) with no tumor mass had normal CA 125 values. Elevated CA 125 values greater than 35 U/ml before second-look laparotomy predicted remaining tumors in 77% (15/19) of patients. The mean lead time between increasing CA 125 values and tumor relapse was 3 months. Normal CA 125 values at the end of first-line therapy may predict long survival times.

Molecular analysis of the retinoblastoma gene in primary ovarian cancer cells.

Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) at the site of the retinoblastoma (RB1) gene, at 13q14, has been shown to occur in a high proportion of ovarian cancer patients. Based on this, RB1 gene inactivation was studied in primary tumor cells from 15 patients with ovarian cancer. Structural changes as well as expression of the RB1 gene were investigated. One patient had a nondisjunctional deletion at the RB1 locus, and the duplicated remaining allele carried a deletion of exon 21. In another patient, without detectable structural changes of the RB1 gene, no RB protein was detected. Allelic losses at the RB1 locus were observed in 8/13 informative cases (61%). Our results indicate that inactivation of the RB1 gene plays a role in tumor development in a minority of ovarian cancer patients. Another gene(s) on 13q also seem(s) to influence malignant transformation in patients with ovarian cancer.

Assembly of MHC class I molecules in ex vivo carcinoma cells induced by IFN-gamma or by a binding peptide.

It has been reported that the assembly of MHC class I molecules in mutagenized cell lines could be induced by specific binding peptides. We have now demonstrated that the defect in assembly between heavy and light chains of class I molecules naturally occurred in tumor cells of one spontaneous ovarian carcinoma detected by one-dimensional isoelectric focusing of immunoprecipitates with anti-monomorphic class I MAb (W6/32) and by immunostaining with free heavy chain and beta 2m-specific MAbs. In vitro treatment of the tumor cells with IFN-gamma induced the assembly and surface expression of majority class I molecules (A2.1, B7, B15, Cw6, Cw7 out of A2.1, A2*, B7, B15, Cw6, Cw7). Moreover, assembly of A2 and Cw6 was induced by exposure of the tumor cells to a HLA A2-binding peptide K62 derived from influenza A matrix protein. Autologous blood T lymphocytes were activated in mixed lymphocyte-tumor cell culture (MLTC) by the IFN-gamma-treated but not by the unmanipulated tumor cells. Although activated lymphocytes damaged both IFN-gamma-treated and untreated tumor cells, the alpha class I MAb (W6/32) efficiently inhibited the lysis of IFN-gamma-treated targets, but not the untreated targets. These results indicate that the defect of MHC class I assembly may result in the escape of tumor cells from immune response.

Mechanisms of escape from CD8+ T-cell clones specific for the HER-2/neu proto-oncogene expressed in ovarian carcinomas: related and unrelated to decreased MHC class 1 expression.

We have developed an in vitro model to study mechanisms by which ovarian tumor cells that over-express the HER-2/neu proto-oncogene escape recognition by TCD8+. Nine tumor-specific, HLA A2-restricted TCD8+ clones were isolated from 2 ovarian tumor-specific TCD8+ lines derived from tumor-infiltrating or -associated lymphocytes. Of these, 2 clones recognized the previously defined HER-2/neu epitope E75 (a.a. 369-377) and one recognized the C85 epitope (a.a. 971-979), whereas the specificity of the remaining 6 clones was unknown. Three different tumor escape variants (EVC8, EVC22 and EVC36) were produced by co-culturing an ovarian tumor line over-expressing HER-2/neu with these autologous TCD8+ clones. Cell surface expression of HLA A2 was markedly decreased on all 3 escape variants, relative to the parental tumor line, while no significant decrease in their expression of the HER-2/neu, ICAM-1 or LFA-3 molecules was found. There was a correlation between the level of tumor-specific recognition and HLA A2 expression among the tumor clones isolated from 2 of the escape variants (EVC8 and EVC36). In contrast, high HLA A2-expressing tumor clones isolated from the EVC22 variant, or EVC22 which had regained high HLA A2 expression through IFN-gamma treatment, were not recognized by the HER-2/neu-specific TCD8+ clone C-22. No mutations were found in the cDNA or the genomic DNA derived from the PCR product corresponding to a 496 bp fragment including the region coding for the E75 epitope of the HER2/neu gene in the EVC22 variant. Collectively, this in vitro model underlines the importance of decreased expression of the HLA restriction element for escape from tumor-specific TCD8+ but also demonstrates that additional mechanisms exist.

Immunogenicity and immunosensitivity of ex vivo human carcinomas: interferon gamma and tumour necrosis factor alpha treatment of tumour cells potentiates their interaction with autologous blood lymphocytes.

Human carcinoma cells vary appreciably in the expression of MHC class I, class II, ICAM-1 (CD54) and B7 (CD80) molecules. Short-term in vitro exposure of ex vivo carcinoma cells to interferon gamma and tumour necrosis factor alpha elevated/induced the surface expression of MHC class I, class II and ICAM-1, but only rarely of B7. We found that cytokine treatment elevated the cytotoxic susceptibility and the stimulatory potential of ex vivo tumour cells. This was demonstrated (a) by the increased frequency and elevated level of auto-tumour lysis and (b) by induction of DNA synthesis and generation of cytotoxic lymphocytes in autologous mixed lymphocyte/tumour cell culture (MLTC). The MHC class I and ICAM-1 molecules on the tumour cells were required for interaction with the lymphocytes as indicated by the inhibitory effect of specific mAb both in the stimulation and in the cytotoxic tests. While the cytokine-induced increases in MHC and ICAM-1 on the low-expression tumours were probably important for the modification of functional interaction with the autologous lymphocytes, it is likely that alterations in other properties of tumour cells were also induced which contributed to the phenomenon. This was indicated by the results obtained with several tumours, which expressed indigenously high levels of these molecules but activated the autologous lymphocytes only after cytokine treatment. In several experiments the untreated targets that did not activate the lymphocytes were sensitive to the cytotoxicity of the effectors activated in MLTC. The results show that the afferent and efferent arms of the immune response have different requirements for functional interactions between lymphocytes and tumour cells.

Cytotoxic susceptibility and defective MHC class I expression do not correlate with mutation of p53 in human carcinomas.

Twenty-nine samples of ex vivo ovarian and lung carcinomas were investigated for the relationship between the presence of mutated protein 53 (mp53) and cytotoxic susceptibility. Unaltered expression of MHC class I alleles was required for the cytotoxic susceptibility of tumour cells to the autologous ex vivo blood lymphocytes, i.e. all 4 sensitive tumours belonged to the group of 11 tumours without defect in MHC class I expression. In contrast, the susceptibility did not correlate with the presence of mp53, i.e. cases with mp53 were randomly distributed between the sensitive and resistant tumours (2/4 and 10/17 respectively). There was no correlation either between the p53 mutation and down-regulation of MHC class I alleles. The results suggest that in these tumours the mutated p53 is not the source of immunogenic peptides and that the lack of recognition of the tumours with mp53 is not caused by a defect in the expression of MHC class I molecules.

Human ex vivo carcinoma cells produce transforming growth factor beta and thereby can inhibit lymphocyte functions in vitro.

We tested 20 human carcinoma samples for the production of transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) in vitro. Tumour cell suspensions without obvious contamination with non-malignant cells were kept in culture conditions for 16 h and their supernatants were added to CCL-64 cells. The proliferation of these cells is inhibited by TGFbeta. According to this assay, the supernatants contained both active and latent TGFbeta. In addition, the supernatants were found to suppress the spontaneous cytotoxic function and activation of T-cell-enriched lymphocyte populations. A specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) counteracted these effects and therefore we concluded that they were mediated to a large extent by TGFbeta. In line with the results obtained with the supernatants, activation of lymphocytes could also be inhibited by tumour cells and their inhibitory effect was weaker in the presence of the TGFbeta-specific mAb. It is important to note that, when TGFbeta-specific mAb was added to autologous mixed lymphocyte/tumour cell cultures, lymphocyte activation occurred more often. These results thus substantiate the assumption that production of TGFbeta may help the survival of potentially immunogenic tumour cells in immunocompetent patients.

Selective expression of interleukin 10, interferon gamma, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in ovarian cancer biopsies.

The variable clinical response seen with most cancer immunotherapy suggests that there is a large interindividual variation in immunologic response to tumors. One of the key functional parameters of an immune response is the local production of cytokines. As a method to survey the immune status of tumor-infiltrating cells, we have investigated the constitutive expression of cytokine mRNA in biopsies from epithelial ovarian carcinomas by using a PCR-assisted mRNA amplification assay. Using a set of cytokine-specific primers for 10 different cytokines, we have found selective expression of interleukin 10 (IL-10), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and interferon gamma mRNA in ovarian tumor tissue as compared to normal ovaries and ovarian tumor cell lines. Such differences could not be explained by the extent of T-cell infiltration, since comparing samples with the same intensity of T-cell receptor (TCR) constant region alpha-chain product from the tumor and normal biopsies demonstrated different cytokine patterns. No IL-2 gene expression was detected in the tumor biopsies. IL-2 mRNA, however, became expressed after stimulation of the tumor-derived cells via the CD3 molecule but not after growth in recombinant IL-2 alone. Using the same methodology, we also analyzed the TCR variable region beta-chain gene repertoire. No restriction or biased expression of these genes was observed.

Diverse effect of cytokine treatment of tumor cells on specific versus non-specific cytotoxicity.

The effect of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha treatment of an ovarian carcinoma line on the sensitivity to lysis by specific CTL clones and non-specific Tumor Associated Lymphocytes (TAL), isolated from the ascites fluid, was analyzed. The in vitro established TAL line displayed a non-specific lytic activity against the autologous tumor as well as against several allogeneic tumor lines. Pretreatment with IFN-gamma alone, or in combination with TNF-alpha, rendered the carcinoma line less susceptible to lysis by the autologous TAL line. Conversely, susceptibility to lysis by tumor specific T cell clones, isolated from the TAL line, was increased as a result of cytokine pretreatment. Several TCR-alpha/beta+, CD8+ T-cell clones showing a more specific pattern of lysis against the autologous tumor were isolated. Lysis of the autologous tumor by these clones involved the TCR-alpha/beta via a MHC-class I restricted mechanism dependent on the adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and LFA-3, as inferred from antibody blocking studies. The enhanced sensitivity to specific CTL clones seen after cytokine treatment may be related to the enhanced expression of ICAM-1 molecules on the ovarian carcinoma. These results have implications for cytokine based immunotherapy, where IFN-gamma may enhance the effects of tumor associated specific CTL while decreasing that of non-specific effector cells.

Restricted T cell receptor V-beta and J-beta usage in T cells from interleukin-2-cultured lymphocytes of ovarian and renal carcinomas.

Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) are often observed in human tumours and their presence has been correlated with a better prognosis. It has been suggested that TIL are enriched for tumour-specific cytotoxic cells, and TIL activated and expanded in vitro by interleukin-2 (IL-2) are currently used in the therapy of human cancer. We have studied the T cell repertoire in IL-2-expanded TIL cells from patients with ovarian and renal carcinoma using T-cell-receptor-V-beta-specific monoclonal antibodies and a polymerase-chain-reaction-based Southern blot technique for analysis of J-beta usage. In TIL lines derived from three of nine patients with ovarian carcinomas and from two of eight patients with renal carcinomas, selective usage of the V-beta 6 or V-beta 5 T-cell receptor gene products was found. The majority of the cells were CD4+, with up to 40% of the T cells utilizing the same V-beta gene. T-cell lines derived from peripheral blood lymphocytes from patients or healthy donors contained normal levels of V-beta subsets. Only moderate levels of V-beta 6+ T cells were detected from freshly isolated TIL and the increase of this subpopulation appeared as a result of in vitro culture. The level of clonal restriction, as measured by the usage of J-beta gene segments within the V-beta 5 or V-beta 6 families, was analysed using a recently developed technique based on the polymerase chain reaction. Evidence for restricted J-beta usage was detected only in TIL expanded in vitro, while this was not the case in freshly isolated tumour-derived lymphocytes or T cell lines obtained from peripheral blood lymphocytes. The presence of a population with biased T cell receptor expression in cells derived from tumour tissue could be explained by their activation in vivo as a result of contact with tumour antigens and should be taken into consideration when discussing the therapeutic efficiency of IL-2-expanded TIL.

Identification of new HER2/neu-derived peptide epitopes that can elicit specific CTL against autologous and allogeneic carcinomas and melanomas.

Twenty-two new HLA-A2.1-binding peptides derived from the protooncogene HER2/neu were identified and analyzed for their capacity to elicit peptide and tumor-specific CTL responses. We used peptide-pulsed autologous DC from the ascites of patients with ovarian carcinomas to induce CTL. Of the 22 tested new HER2/neu-derived epitopes that could bind HLA-A2 with high (IC50 < 50 nM) or intermediate (50 nM < IC50 < 500 nM) affinity, we report the recognition by CTL of at least four novel epitopes, including HER2(9435), HER2(9665), HER2(9689), and HER2(10952), and confirm that of the known HER2 (9369) epitope. These epitopes were able to elicit CTL that specifically killed peptide-sensitized target cells and, most importantly, a HER2/neu-transfected cell line and the autologous tumor cells. We also confirm that HER2/neu is overexpressed in several melanoma lines, and as a new finding, report that some of these lines are sensitive to CTL induced by the HER2 (9369), HER2(9435), and HER2(9689) epitopes. Finally, CTL clones specific for HER2 (9369), HER2(9435), and HER2(9689) epitopes were isolated from tumor-specific CTL lines, further demonstrating the immunodominance of these epitopes. These findings broaden the potential application of HER2/neu-based immunotherapy.