Daily peritoneal administration of sodium pyrophosphate in a dialysis solution prevents the development of vascular calcification in a mouse model of uraemia.

BACKGROUND: The high rate of cardiovascular mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is a significant barrier to improved life expectancy. Unique in this population is the marked development and aggressive worsening of vascular calcification (VC). Pyrophosphate (PPi), an endogenous molecule, appears to naturally inhibit soft tissue calcification, but may be depressed in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and ESRD. Although once thought to be a promising therapeutic, PPi's very short half-life in circulation curtailed earlier studies. We tested the possibility that a slow, continuous entry of PPi into the circulation and prevention of VC might be achieved by daily peritoneal dialysis (PD). METHODS: Pharmacokinetic studies were first carried out in rats with renal impairment resulting from a 5/6 nephrectomy. Efficacy studies were then performed in the apolipoprotein E gene knockout mouse model overlaid with CKD. PPi was delivered by means of a permanent peritoneal catheter in a solution simulating PD, but without the timed removal of spent dialysate. von Kossa's staining followed by semiquantitative morphological image processing, with separation of inside (intimal) and outside (presumed medial) lesions, was used to determine aortic root calcification. RESULTS: In comparison to an intravenous bolus, delivery of PPi in a PD solution resulted in a slower, extended delivery over >4 h. Next, the efficacy studies showed that a 6-day/week PD-simulated administration of PPi resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of aortic calcification in both intimal and medial lesions. A dose-response effect on total aortic calcification was also documented, with a full inhibition seen at the highest dose. A limited peritoneal catheter-related inflammation was observed, as expected, and included the placebo-treated control groups. This inflammatory response could have masked a lower level PPi-specific adverse effect, but none was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest potential for PPi, administered during PD, to prevent the development of VC and to potentially extend the life of ESRD patients.

Effects of bicarbonate/lactate dialysis solution on the inflammatory response of spontaneous peritonitis in rats undergoing chronic peritoneal dialysis.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the incidence of spontaneous peritonitis as well as the local inflammatory response and macroscopic changes in the peritoneum during the use of a bicarbonate/lactate-buffered (P) solution in comparison to conventional (D) solutions in rats on chronic peritoneal dialysis. METHODS: Sixty-three male Wistar rats were implanted with peritoneal catheters. After 7 days, the animals were randomly divided into 2 experimental groups (32 rats in D, 31 rats in P) and infused twice daily over the following 4 weeks. RESULTS: After 14 and 23 days, rats dialyzed with D had a higher peritonitis rate than those dialyzed with P. The median number of days until peritonitis occurred was 22 days for the rats in the D group and 29 days for the rats in the P group. Spontaneously infected rats dialyzed with the D solution had higher scores for adhesion formation. CONCLUSIONS: In this animal model, dialysis with P delayed the time to the 1st infection, reduced the overall peritonitis rate and reduced peritonitis-associated peritoneal adhesion formation during chronic peritoneal dialysis.

Ultrafiltration efficiency during automated peritoneal dialysis using glucose-based solutions.

The ultrafiltration (UF) efficiency of peritoneal dialysis (PD) solutions, defined as the net UF divided by the amount of carbohydrate absorbed per dwell, has been shown to be higher during long dwells with 7.5% icodextrin solution (Extraneal: Baxter Healthcare Corporation, Deerfield, IL, U.S.A.) than during those with glucose-based solution (2.5% and 4.25% Dianeal: Baxter Healthcare Corporation), prompting a better understanding of UF efficiency. We used the three-pore kinetic model of PD transport to investigate UF efficiency for single long dwells and various combinations of multiple short glucose-based dwells during automated PD (APD). To demonstrate a practical consequence of the effect of dwell time, we simulated two hypothetical APD prescriptions (A and B) in which fluid with a high glucose concentration was used during either the long day dwell (A: 4.25%; B: 2.5%) or the short night dwells (A: 3 x 1.5% + 1 x 2.5%; B: 4 x 2.5%). Computer simulations showed that higher glucose concentrations and shorter dwell times increase the UF efficiency of a single dwell, and UF efficiency depends on patient transport status. When 24-hour APD therapy was simulated for a low-average transporter, the net UF did not differ considerably (A: 1132 mL; B: 1154 mL), but total carbohydrate absorption was higher when solution with a high glucose concentration was used during the single long dwell (A: 146 g; B: 137 g), resulting in lower UF efficiency (A: 7.8 mL/g; B: 8.4 mL/g). We conclude that the UF efficiency of the entire regimen should be considered in prescribing PD therapy. When available, Extraneal provides the best UF efficiency during long dwells. Our simulations suggest that raising the glucose concentration in the short dwells and lowering it in the long dwell is the optimal strategy to maximize UF efficiency during APD when Extraneal is not available.

Peritoneal dialysis solutions inhibit the differentiation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells: effect of lactate and glucose-degradation products.

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a well-established therapy for end-stage renal failure, but its efficiency is limited by recurrent peritonitis. As PD solutions impair local inflammatory responses within the peritoneal cavity, we have analyzed their influence on the in vitro maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDC). Evaluation of MDDC maturation parameters [expression of adhesion and costimulatory molecules, receptor-mediated endocytosis, allogeneic T cell activation, production of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-12 p70, and nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB activation] revealed that currently used PD solutions differentially inhibit the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced maturation of MDDC, an inhibition that correlated with their ability to impair the LPS-stimulated NF-kappaB activation. Evaluation of PD components revealed that sodium lactate and glucose-degradation products impaired the acquisition of maturation parameters and NF-kappaB activation in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, PD solutions impaired monocyte-MDDC differentiation, inhibiting the acquisition of DC markers such as CD1a and DC-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3 grabbing nonintegrin (CD209). These findings have important implications for the initiation of immune responses under high lactate conditions, such as those occurring within tumor tissues or after macrophage activation.

Predicting the Peritoneal Absorption of Icodextrin in Rats and Humans Including the Effect of α-Amylase Activity in Dialysate.

BACKGROUND: Contrary to ultrafiltration, the three-pore model predictions of icodextrin absorption from the peritoneal cavity have not yet been reported likely, in part, due to difficulties in estimating the degradation of glucose-polymer chains by α-amylase activity in dialysate. We incorporated this degradation process in a modified three-pore model of peritoneal transport to predict ultrafiltration and icodextrin absorption simultaneously in rats and humans. METHODS: Separate three-pore models were constructed for humans and rats. The model for humans was adapted from PD Adequest 2.0 including a clearance term out of the peritoneal cavity to account for the absorption of large molecules to the peritoneal tissues, and considering patients who routinely used icodextrin by establishing steady-state plasma concentrations. The model for rats employed a standard three-pore model in which human kinetic parameters were scaled for a rat based on differences in body weight. Both models described the icodextrin molecular weight (MW) distribution as five distinct MW fractions. First order kinetics was applied using degradation rate constants obtained from previous in-vitro measurements using gel permeation chromatography. Ultrafiltration and absorption were predicted during a 4-hour exchange in rats, and 9 and 14-hour exchanges in humans with slow to fast transport characteristics with and without the effect of amylase activity. RESULTS: In rats, the icodextrin MW profile shifted towards the low MW fractions due to complete disappearance of the MW fractions greater than 27.5 kDa. Including the effect of amylase activity (60 U/L) resulted in 21.1% increase in ultrafiltration (UF) (7.6 mL vs 6.0 mL) and 7.1% increase in icodextrin absorption (CHO) (62.5% with vs 58.1%). In humans, the shift in MW profile was less pronounced. The fast transport (H) patient absorbed more icodextrin than the slow transport (L) patient during both 14-hour (H: 47.9% vs L: 40.2%) and 9-hour (H: 37.4% vs L: 31.7%) exchanges. While the UF was higher during the longer exchange, it varied modestly among the patient types (14-hour range: 460 - 509 mL vs 9-hour range: 382 - 389 mL). When averaged over all patients, the increases in UF and CHO during the 14-hour exchange due to amylase activity (7 U/L) were 15% and 1.5%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The icodextrin absorption values predicted by the model agreed with those measured in rats and humans to accurately show the increased absorption in rats. Also, the model confirmed the previous suggestions by predicting an increase in UF specific to amylase activity in dialysate, likely due to the added osmolality by the small molecules generated as a result of the degradation process. As expected, this increase was more pronounced in rats than in humans because of higher dialysate concentrations of amylase in rats.

Low-Polydispersity Glucose Polymers as Osmotic Agents for Peritoneal Dialysis.

UNLABELLED: ♦ BACKGROUND: Peritoneal dialysis (PD) solutions containing icodextrin as the osmotic agent have advantages during long dwells. The glucose polymers that constitute icodextrin are a heterogeneous mix of molecules with a polydispersity [ratio of weight-average to number-average molecular weight (Mw/Mn)] of approximately 2.6. The present study evaluates whether modifications in the polydispersity and concentration of glucose polymers can improve ultrafiltration (UF) without an associated increase in carbohydrate absorption (CA). ♦ METHODS: Computer simulations using a three-pore model of peritoneal transport during a long dwell in PD patients predict that, in general, compared with 7.5% icodextrin, glucose polymers with a Mw greater than or equal to 7.5 kDa, a polydispersity less than 2.6, and concentrations greater than 7% could achieve higher UF without higher CA. Based on the simulations, we hypothesized that, compared with 7.5% icodextrin, glucose polymers with a Mw of 18 - 19 kDa and a polydispersity of 2.0 at 11% concentration could achieve higher UF without a higher CA. We tested this hypothesis in experimental studies using 8-hour dwells in New Zealand White rabbits. In those studies, UF was measured by complete fluid collection, and CA was measured by subtracting the total carbohydrate in the collected fluid from the carbohydrate initially infused. ♦ RESULTS: The UF was higher with 11% 19 kDa glucose polymer than with 7.5% icodextrin (mean ± standard deviation: 89 ± 31 mL vs 49 ± 15 mL; p = 0.004) without higher CA (5.2 ± 0.9 g vs 5.0 ± 0.9 g, p = 0.7). Similar results were seen with the 11% 18 kDa glucose polymer, which, compared with 7.5% icodextrin, resulted in higher UF (mean ± standard deviation: 96 ± 18 mL vs 66 ± 17 mL; p < 0.001) without higher CA (4.8 ± 0.7 g vs 5.2 ± 0.6 g, p = 0.2). ♦ CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrate that, compared with 7.5% icodextrin solution, long-dwell PD solutions containing 11% glucose polymers with a Mw of 18-19 kDa and a polydispersity of 2.0 can provide higher UF without higher CA.

Clinical indices of in vivo biocompatibility: the role of ex vivo cell function studies and effluent markers in peritoneal dialysis patients.

Clinical indices of in vivo biocompatibility: The role of ex vivo cell function studies and effluent markers in peritoneal dialysis patients. Over the past 20 years, studies of the biocompatibility profile of peritoneal dialysis solutions (PDF) have evolved from initial in vitro studies assessing the impact of solutions on leukocyte function to evaluations of mesothelial cell behavior. More recent biocompatibility evaluations have involved assessments of the impact of PDF on membrane integrity and cell function in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. The development of ex vivo systems for the evaluation of in vivo cell function, and effluent markers of membrane integrity and inflammation in patients exposed both acutely and chronically to conventional and new PDF will be interpreted in the context of our current understanding of the biology of the dialyzed peritoneum. The available data indicate that exposure of the peritoneal environment to more biocompatible PDF is associated with improvements in peritoneal cell function, alterations in markers of membrane integrity, and reduced local inflammation. These data suggest that more biocompatible PDF will have a positive impact on host defense, peritoneal homeostasis, and the long-term preservation of peritoneal membrane function in PD patients.

The in vitro biocompatibility performance of a 25 mmol/L bicarbonate/10 mmol/L lactate-buffered peritoneal dialysis fluid.

UNLABELLED: The in vitro biocompatibility performance of a 25 mmol/L bicarbonate/10 mmol/L lactate-buffered peritoneal dialysis fluid. BACKGROUND: The biocompatibility profile of a new peritoneal dialysis (PD) solution (Physioneal 35) was determined using a selection of in vitro assay systems. Physioneal 35 is buffered by a combination of 25 mmol/L bicarbonate and 10 mmol/L lactate, thereby providing a solution with a total of 35 mmol/L of alkali to complement the currently available 25 mmol/L bicarbonate and 15 mmol/L lactate combination solution, Physioneal 40. In addition, the new solution contains a calcium concentration of 1.75 mmol/L rather than 1.25 mmol/L present in Physioneal 40. Physioneal 35 and 40 are manufactured in double chamber bag systems that permit separation of glucose from the buffer during sterilization. When the two chambers are mixed just before patient use, the resulting solution has a neutral pH and reduced glucose degradation content. Physioneal 35 was evaluated for its cytotoxicity potential using a murine fibroblast assay, its acute effect on human neutrophil and human peritoneal mesothelial cell function, and its in vitro potential to form advanced glycation end products (AGE). The biocompatibility characteristics of this new formulation were compared with that of a conventional, lactate-based solution and to that of its parent formulation, Physioneal 40. METHODS: Proliferation of murine fibroblasts was determined after exposure to dialysis fluids for 72 hours. Cell viability was assayed by the ability to take up neutral red dye. Human neutrophils were exposed for 15 minutes to dialysis fluids, and their ATP content and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) stimulated chemiluminescence response was determined as a measure of viability and respiratory burst activity, respectively. Cellular interleukin (IL)-1beta-driven IL-8 synthesis by human mesothelial cells following acute exposure to dialysis fluids was also assessed. Advanced glycation end product formation in the dialysis fluids was measured after 5 and 20 days of incubation with human serum albumin (HSA) as the model protein. RESULTS: In all assays employed, the biocompatibility profile of Physioneal 35 was similar to that of the Physioneal 40 parent formulation. Physioneal 35 showed a significant improvement in biocompatibility performance compared to a pH neutralized conventional lactate-buffered peritoneal dialysis solution in the murine fibroblast assay. In the acute exposure assays, human neutrophil viability and respiratory burst were significantly improved compared with the acidic, conventional solution; however, no statistically significant improvement were seen in mesothelial cells. AGE formation, which is thought to be an important mechanism by which glucose and glucose degradation products cause structural and functional changes of the peritoneal membrane, was significantly lower in Physioneal 35 compared with the conventional dialysis solution. CONCLUSION: The biocompatibility profile of Physioneal 35 was similar to that of the original Physioneal 40 bicarbonate/ lactate-buffered dialysis solution, confirming that differences in both buffer content and calcium concentration do not affect biocompatibility performance. Both bicarbonate/lactate formulations (Physioneal 35 and Physioneal 40) were more biocompatible than a conventional lactate-buffered dialysis solution in this in vitro biocompatibility assessment.

A functional variant of the myeloperoxidase gene is associated with cardiovascular disease in end-stage renal disease patients.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients and there is emerging evidence that genetic factors may contribute to the development of atherosclerosis. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is an abundant enzyme involved in the production of free radicals. A functional G-->A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) has been identified at position -463, where the A allele is associated with lower MPO expression. To analyze the association between this SNP and inflammation, oxidative stress, and CVD, we studied a cohort of 155 ESRD patients (52 +/- 1 years, 62% males, 22% diabetics) shortly before the initiation of dialysis treatment. CVD was defined by medical history criteria; plasma interleukin-6 (IL-6) was used as a marker of inflammation, and plasma pentosidine as an estimation of oxidative protein damage. DNA from leukocytes was used for genotyping, performed by the pyrosequencing reaction. Only five patients (3%) had the genotype AA at the -463 position, whereas 38 (25%) had the GA and 112 (72%) had the GG genotype. No differences were noted in plasma IL-6 levels between the genotype groups, whereas the pentosidine levels were higher in the GG group (28.4 pmol/mg albumin [range, 8.5 to 123 pmol/mg albumin]) compared to the other two groups (21.4 pmol/mg albumin [range, 7.6 to 384 pmol/mg albumin; P < 0.05]). Patients with the GG genotype had a higher prevalence of positive serology for Chlamydia pneumoniae (51%) when compared to the carriers of the A allele (24%) (P < 0.05). The prevalence of CVD was lower in the AA (0%) and GA genotypes (18%), compared to the GG genotype (35%). The GG genotype was still associated with CVD after correction for age, diabetes, smoking, malnutrition, and inflammation. Our findings suggest that the -463 G-->A SNP, which supposedly results in lower MPO activity, is associated with a lower prevalence of CVD in ESRD patients. It could be speculated that this effect is mediated by a decreased oxidative stress due to lower production of free radicals.

Peritoneal residual volume induces variability of ultrafiltration with icodextrin.

BACKGROUND: Icodextrin induces ultrafiltration (UF) during long-dwell exchanges by creating a difference in oncotic pressure between the peritoneal cavity and plasma; however, the mechanisms governing intra-patient and inter-patient variability in UF when icodextrin is used remain largely unexplained. In the present study, we show theoretically that differences in peritoneal residual volume (VR) have a more profound effect on UF with icodextrin use than with glucose use. This phenomenon is attributed to a differential effect of VR on oncotic, rather than osmotic, pressure between the peritoneal cavity and plasma. ♢ METHODS: The three-pore model was used to calculate the effect on UF of VR between 150 mL and 1200 mL when 7.5% icodextrin (ICO) or 3.86% glucose solution is used at the end of a 12-hour dwell in the four patient transport groups (that is, fast to slow). Oncotic (with ICO) and osmotic (with glucose) pressure differences averaged over the entire dwell were also calculated. ♢ RESULTS: As expected, at a nominal VR of 300 mL, UF with glucose differed substantially between the four patient transport groups (2 - 804 mL), whereas UF with ICO did not (556 - 573 mL). When VR was increased to 1200 mL from 150 mL, the concentrations of the oncotic and osmotic agents at the start of the dwell with an infusion volume of 2 L decreased to 4.9% from 7.0% with ICO and to 2.5% from 3.6% with glucose. The decrease in UF on average was greater with ICO [to 252 mL from 624 mL: that is, a reduction of 372 mL (60%)] than with glucose [to 292 mL from 398 mL: that is, a reduction of 106 mL (27%)]. Those trends agreed with the calculated reductions in the oncotic pressure difference with ICO [reduction of 12 mmHg (49%)] and the osmotic pressure difference with glucose [reduction of 19 mmHg (33%)]. ♢ CONCLUSIONS: When ICO is used, VR modifies the oncotic pressure difference between the peritoneal cavity and plasma to substantially alter UF. This modification suggests that potential causes of increased VR should be considered when UF with ICO is considerably less than expected. Prospective clinical studies evaluating the relationship between VR and UF with ICO are warranted to validate the theoretical predictions in this report.

Ultrafiltration characteristics of glucose polymers with low polydispersity.

BACKGROUND: Icodextrin, a glucose polymer with a polydispersity [ratio of weight-average molecular weight (Mw) to number-average molecular weight] of approximately 2.6, has been shown, compared with glucose, to provide superior ultrafiltration (UF) efficiency [ratio of UF to carbohydrate (CHO) absorbed] when used as an osmotic agent during a long-dwell peritoneal dialysis exchange. In an experimental rabbit model, we evaluated the effect of Mw on the UF and UF efficiency of glucose polymers with low polydispersity. METHODS: A crossover trial in female New Zealand White rabbits (2.20 - 2.65 kg) with surgically implanted peritoneal catheters evaluated two glucose polymers at nominal concentrations of 7.5 g/dL: a 6K polymer (Mw: 6.4 kDa; polydispersity: 2.3) and a 19K polymer (Mw: 18.8 kDa; polydispersity: 2.0). Rabbits were randomized to receive either the 6K (n = 11) or the 19K (n = 12) solution during the first exchange (40 mL/kg body weight). The alternative solution was evaluated in a second exchange 3 days later. During each 4-hour dwell, the UF and total glucose polymer CHO absorbed were determined. RESULTS: The UF was higher for the 6K (p < 0.0001) than for the 19K polymer (mean ± standard deviation: 73.6 ± 30.8 mL vs. 43.0 ± 20.2 mL), as was the amount of CHO absorbed (42.5% ± 9.8% vs. 35.7% ± 11.0%, p = 0.021). In spite of higher CHO absorption, an approximately 50% higher (p = 0.029) UF efficiency was achieved with the 6K polymer (28.3 ± 18.8 mL/g) than with the 19K polymer (19.0 ± 11.3 mL/g). The results were independent of the order of the experimental exchanges. CONCLUSIONS: Glucose polymers with low polydispersity are effective osmotic agents in a rabbit model. The low-Mw polymer was more effective at generating UF and had a higher UF efficiency, but those results came at the expense of the polymer being more readily absorbed from the peritoneal cavity.

Reducing cardiometabolic risk in peritoneal dialysis patients: role of the dialysis solution.

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a well-established form of therapy for stage 5 chronic kidney disease requiring renal replacement therapy. D-Glucose has been used successfully for several decades as the osmotic agent employed in dialysis solutions to achieve adequate fluid removal. The absorption of 100-200 grams of glucose per day has been suggested as potentially increasing cardiometabolic risk, particularly in patients with diabetes. Supporting and undermining evidence for this hypothesis is reviewed, with a focus on the role of glucose absorption in changes in body composition, dyslipidemia, and glycemic control in diabetic PD patients. Clinical strategies to optimize fluid removal while minimizing the metabolic impact of glucose absorption are also discussed.

Future technologies and techniques in peritoneal dialysis-opportunities and challenges ahead.

In the last 5 years, we have started to witness the emergence of new technologies and techniques that offer the potential for improved patient outcomes but which often still lack clinical demonstration and/or confirmation in well-designed, multicentre studies. These include biocompatible solutions, glucose sparing regimens, low-sodium solutions, bimodal solution formulations and continuous flow peritoneal dialysis (CFPD). This review discusses the potential benefits ascribable to each of these technologies and an analysis of the challenges that have to be surmounted before anyone of these candidate technologies can be declared as established. The demonstration of either hard clinical endpoints or validated surrogate endpoints is very feasible in terms of sample size requirements for some outcome measures, such as preservation of RRF, but will be much more challenging for other endpoints such as preservation of UF capacity.

Glucotoxicity in peritoneal dialysis--solutions for the solution!

Glucose has served well as the prototypical osmotic agent in peritoneal dialysis for more than 2 decades, because it affords many of the characteristics required of a safe and effective osmotic agent. The disadvantages of glucose include its rapid dissipation from the peritoneum and its resulting limited UF efficiency capacity in high and high-average transporters, the associated metabolic response to absorbed glucose in all patients, and the local effects of glucose, glucose degradation products, and hyperosmolality on peritoneal membrane structure and function. This paper briefly reviews the salient elements of glucotoxicity associated with conventional glucose-based peritoneal dialysis (PD) solution use, and then discusses emerging clinical benefits of newer nonglucose PD solutions. Potential future strategies designed to abrogate glucose-associated toxicity are then reviewed. These approaches include bimodal long-dwell solutions, nonglucose crystalloid osmotic agent mixtures, and administration of pharmacologically active agents.

Interleukin-1 gene cluster polymorphisms are associated with nutritional status and inflammation in patients with end-stage renal disease.

BACKGROUND: Wasting and inflammation are two common risk factors for death in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and its receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) may play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of wasting and inflammation. METHODS: To investigate effects of the IL-1 gene cluster polymorphisms on wasting and inflammation, we studied 189 ESRD patients (52+/- 12 years, 62% males) close to the start of renal replacement therapy. 205 healthy volunteers served as controls. We analyzed the IL-1B -511C/T, -31C/T, and +3954C/T polymorphisms as well as a variable number of a tandem repeat (VNTR) in IL-1RN. Nutritional parameters included serum albumin level, subjective global nutritional assessment (SGA), and body composition evaluated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). We used serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) as a marker of inflammation. RESULTS: Wasting (SGA>1) was present in 31%, whereas inflammation (CRP>/=10 mg/l) was present in 36% of the patients. The male carriers of the -511T/T and -31C/C genotypes had a lower prevalence of wasting (p<0.05), higher body mass index (BMI) (p<0.05), and higher lean body mass (LBM) (p<0.01). In a stepwise multiple regression model, age (p<0.05), BMI (p<0.01) and the IL-1B -511 genotype (p<0.01) were independently associated with LBM. The carriers of the +3954T allele had a lower prevalence of inflammation (p<0.05) and lower serum hsCRP (p<0.05). The VNTR in IL-1RN was not associated with any markers. CONCLUSION: The investigated IL-1 gene cluster polymorphisms were associated with nutritional status and inflammation in ESRD patients, but marked differences were found between the genders. These polymorphisms could have prognostic utility for predicting wasting and inflammation in ESRD patients.