Comparing visual and automated urine dipstick analysis in a general practice population.

INTRODUCTION: Urinary symptoms constitute the primary reason for female patients to consult their general practitioner. The urinary dipstick test serves as a cornerstone for diagnosing urinary tract infections (UTIs), yet traditional visual interpretation may be subject to variability. Automated devices for dipstick urinalysis are routinely used as alternatives, yet the evidence regarding their accuracy remains limited. Therefore we aimed to compare concordance between visual and automated urinary dipstick interpretation and determine their test characteristics for the prediction of bacteriuria. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We conducted a prospective validation study including urine samples originating from adult patients in general practice that were sent to the Maastricht Medical Centre + for urinary culture. Urinary dipstick tests were performed on each sample, which were interpreted visually and automatically. We calculated Cohen's κ and percentage agreement and used 2 × 2 tables to calculate test characteristics. RESULTS: We included 302 urine samples. Visual and automated analysis showed almost perfect agreement (κ = 0.82 and κ = 0.86, respectively) for both nitrite and leukocyte esterase, but moderate agreement for erythrocytes (κ = 0.51). Interpretation of clinically relevant (nitrite and/or leukocyte esterase positive) samples showed almost perfect agreement (κ = 0.88). Urinary dipsticks show similar test characteristics with urinary culture as gold standard, with sensitivities of 0.92 and 0.91 and specificities of 0.37 and 0.41 for visual and automated interpretation respectively. CONCLUSION: Automated and visual dipstick analysis show near perfect agreement and perform similarly in predicting bacteriuria. However, automated analysis requires maintenance and occasionally measurement errors can occur.

Burden of disease in children with respiratory tract infections in primary care: diary-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are a common reason for children to consult in general practice. Antibiotics are often prescribed, in part due to miscommunication between parents and GPs. The duration of specific respiratory symptoms has been widely studied. Less is known about illness-related symptoms and the impact of these symptoms on family life, including parental production loss. Better understanding of the natural course of illness-related symptoms in RTI in children and impact on family life may improve GP-parent communication during RTI consultations. OBJECTIVE: To describe the general impact of RTI on children and parents regarding illness-related symptoms, absenteeism from childcare, school and work, use of health care facilities, and the use of over-the-counter (OTC) medication. METHODS: Prospectively collected diary data from two randomized clinical trials in children with RTI in primary care (n = 149). Duration of symptoms was analysed using survival analysis. RESULTS: Disturbed sleep, decreased intake of food and/or fluid, feeling ill and/or disturbance at play or other daily activities are very common during RTI episodes, with disturbed sleep lasting longest. Fifty-two percent of the children were absent for one or more days from childcare or school, and 28% of mothers and 20% of fathers reported absence from work the first week after GP consultation. Re-consultation occurred in 48% of the children. OTC medication was given frequently, particularly paracetamol and nasal sprays. CONCLUSION: Appreciation of, and communication about the general burden of disease on children and their parents, may improve understanding between GPs and parents consulting with their child.

Spread of the epidemic European fusidic acid-resistant impetigo clone (EEFIC) in general practice patients in the south of The Netherlands.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the susceptibility to fusidic acid, mupirocin and retapamulin of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from nasal and wound swabs. METHODS: The susceptibility to the three agents of S. aureus isolated from general patients in the south of The Netherlands with a skin or soft tissue infection was determined between January 2007 and December 2008. Fusidic acid-resistant isolates were tested for the presence of fusidic acid-resistant genes and compared with the epidemic European fusidic acid-resistant impetigo clone (EEFIC). RESULTS: Fusidic acid resistance was found in 23% of the nasal and 35% of the wound isolates, the majority (~90%) being fusB positive. Most of the isolates belonged to spa type t171 and were isolated from younger patients. One isolate was retapamulin resistant (MIC 8 mg/L) and two were mupirocin resistant. CONCLUSIONS: The EEFIC clone was relatively highly prevalent among the isolated S. aureus. The usefulness of fusidic acid as first-line agent for the treatment of impetigo is questionable. As mupirocin is used in The Netherlands for eradication of methicillin-resistant S. aureus, it is not an alternative; retapamulin might be useful, but further in vivo studies are warranted.

[The practice guideline 'Influenza and influenza vaccination' (first revision) from the Dutch College of General Practitioners; a response from the perspective of general practice]. / De standaard 'Influenza en influenzavaccinatie' (eerste herziening) van het Nederlands Huisartsen Genootschap; reactie vanuit de huisartsgeneeskunde.

The first revision of the guideline 'Influenza and influenza vaccination' from the Dutch College of General Practitioners illustrates that influenza has evolved from a supposedly harmless condition to a disease against which growing numbers of patients and healthcare professionals are vaccinated. Although recent studies support its effectiveness, it is still believed that vaccination may prevent serious health problems in the vulnerable patients, notably in homes for the elderly and nursing homes. In order to streamline diagnostic triage in cases of flu-like symptoms, general practitioners must keep abreast of the actual influenza figures, but also be aware that not all patients with flu-like symptoms have influenza. Pneumonia should always be present in the differential diagnosis of influenza.

Clinical items not helpful in differentiating viral from bacterial lower respiratory tract infections in general practice.

OBJECTIVE: Incorrect and unnecessary antibiotic prescribing enhancing bacterial resistance rates might be reduced if viral and bacterial lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) could be differentiated clinically. Whether this is possible is often doubted but has rarely been studied in general practice. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: This was an observational cohort study in 15 general practice surgeries in the Netherlands. RESULTS: Etiologic diagnoses were obtained in 112 of 234 patients with complete data (48%). Viral pathogens were found as often as bacterial pathogens. Haemophilus (para-) influenzae was most frequently found. None of the symptoms and signs correlated statistically significantly with viral or bacterial LRTI. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate >50 (odds ratio [OR] 2.3-3.3) and C-reactive protein (CRP) >20 (OR 2.1-4.6) were independent predictors for viral LRTI and bacterial LRTI when compared with microbiologically unexplained LRTI. CONCLUSION: Extensive history-taking and physical examination did not provide items that predict viral or bacterial LRTI in adult patients in daily general practice. We could not confirm CRP to differentiate between viral and bacterial LRTI.

Contributions of symptoms, signs, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and C-reactive protein to a diagnosis of pneumonia in acute lower respiratory tract infection.

BACKGROUND: Diagnostic tests enabling general practitioners (GPs) to differentiate rapidly between pneumonia and other lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) are needed to prevent increase of bacterial resistance by unjustified antibiotic prescribing. AIMS: To assess the diagnostic value of symptoms, signs, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and C-reactive protein (CRP) for pneumonia; to derive a prediction rule for the presence of pneumonia; and to identify a low-risk group of patients who do not require antibiotic treatment. DESIGN OF STUDY: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Fifteen GP surgeries in the southern part of The Netherlands. METHOD: Twenty-five GPs recorded clinical information and diagnosis in 246 adult patients presenting with LRTI. Venous blood samples for CRP and ESR were taken and chest radiographs (reference standard) were made. Odds ratios, describing the relationships between discrete diagnostic variables and reference standard (pneumonia or no pneumonia) were calculated. Receiver operating characteristic analysis of ESR, CRP, and final models for pneumonia was performed. Prediction rules for pneumonia were derived from multiple logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Dry cough, diarrhoea, and a recorded temperature of > or = 38 degrees C were independent and statistically significant predictors of pneumonia, whereas abnormal pulmonary auscultation and clinical diagnosis of pneumonia by the GPs were not. ESR and CRP had higher diagnostic odds ratios than any of the symptoms and signs. Adding CRP to the final 'symptoms and signs' model significantly increased the probability of correct diagnosis. Applying a prediction rule for low-risk patients, including a CRP of < 20, 80 of the 193 antibiotic prescriptions could have been prevented with a maximum risk of 2.5% of missing a pneumonia case. CONCLUSION: Most symptoms and signs traditionally associated with pneumonia are not predictive of pneumonia in general practice. The prediction rule for low-risk patients presented here, including a CRP of < 20, can considerably reduce unjustified antibiotic prescribing.

Is roxithromycin better than amoxicillin in the treatment of acute lower respiratory tract infections in primary care? A double-blind randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy of roxithromycin relative to amoxicillin. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a double-blind randomized controlled trial of oral 500 mg amoxicillin 3 times per day vs oral 300 mg roxithromycin once a day for 10 days. POPULATION: We included 196 adults who had presented to a general practitioner with lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) and, in the physician's opinion, needed antibiotic treatment. OUTCOMES MEASURED: We measured clinical response after 10 and 28 days, defined in 4 ways: (1) decrease in LRTI symptoms; (2) complete absence of symptoms; (3) decrease in signs; and (4) complete absence of signs. Self-reported response included the decrease in symptoms and the time until resumption of impaired or abandoned daily activities on days 1 through 10, 21, and 27. RESULTS: Clinical cure rates after the completion of antibiotic treatment (10 days) were not significantly different for the 2 groups. After 28 days, the roxithromycin group showed no increase in cure rate as evidenced by the decrease in symptoms, indicating a significantly lower cure rate. However, this difference did not alter physicians' overall conclusion after complete follow-up that 90% of patients, regardless of age, had been effectively treated with either amoxicillin or roxithromycin. CONCLUSIONS: The surplus value of roxithromycin was not confirmed. Amoxicillin remains a reliable first-choice antibiotic in the treatment of LRTI in general practice.

Prognostic factors and clinical outcome in acute lower respiratory tract infections: a prospective study in general practice.

BACKGROUND: Unrealistic expectations about illness duration are likely to result in reconsultations and associated unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions. An evidence-based account of clinical outcomes in patients with lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) may help avoid unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions and reconsultations. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to identify clinical factors that may predict a prolonged clinical course or poor outcome for patients with LRTI and to provide an evidence-based account of duration of an LRTI and the impact of the illness on daily activities in patients consulting in general practice. METHODS: A prospective cohort study of 247 adult patients with a clinical diagnosis of LRTI presenting to 25 GPs in The Netherlands was carried out. Multivariable Cox regression analysis was used to identify baseline clinical and infection parameters that predicted the time taken for symptoms to resolve. A Kaplan-Meier curve was used to analyse time-to-symptom resolution. Clinical cure was recorded by the GPs at 28 days after the initial consultation and by the patients at 27 days. RESULTS: Co-morbidity of asthma was a statistically significant predictor of delayed symptom resolution, whereas the presence of fever, perspiring and the prescription of an antibiotic weakly predicted enhanced symptom resolution. The GPs considered 89% of the patients clinically cured at 28 days, but 43% of these nevertheless reported ongoing symptoms. Patient-reported cure was much lower (51%), and usual daily activities were limited in 73% of the patients at baseline, and 19% at final follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The course of LRTI was generally uncomplicated, but the morbidity of this illness was considerable with a longer duration than generally reported, especially for patients with co-existent asthma. These results underline once again the importance of providing GPs with an evidence-based account of outcomes to share with patients in order to set realistic expectations and of enhancing their communication skills within the consultation.

Inter-observer variation in the interpretation of chest radiographs for pneumonia in community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections.

AIM: To assess inter-observer variation in the interpretation of chest radiographs of individuals with pneumonia versus those without pneumonia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Chest radiographs of out-patients with a lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) were assessed for the presence of infiltrates by radiologists from three local hospitals and were reassessed by one university hospital radiologist. Various measures of inter-observer agreement were calculated. RESULTS: The observed proportional agreement was 218 in 243 patients (89.7%). Kappa was 0.53 (moderate agreement) with a 95% confidence interval of 0.37 to 0.69. The observed positive agreement (59%) was much lower than for negative agreement (94%). Kappa was considerably lower, if chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was present (kappa = 0.20) or Streptococcus pneumoniae (kappa = -0.29) was the infective agent. CONCLUSION: The overall inter-observer agreement adjusted for chance was moderate. Inter-observer agreement in cases with pneumonia was much worse than the agreement in negative (i.e. non-pneumonia) cases. A general practitioner's selection of patients with a higher chance of having pneumonia for chest radiography would thus not improve the observer agreement.