Oil palm and gendered time use: A mixed-methods case study from West Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Measuring the social impact of oil palm requires the use of multiple metrics which capture different dimensions of well-being. To date, most studies have examined welfare outcomes at the household level, relying on a relatively narrow range of indicators. There is a need for a more diverse range of metrics to measure the social impacts of oil palm as well as more explicit accounting for study context and gendered effects. Here we demonstrate the utility of specialised time use methods used in combination with qualitative research to understand intra-household labour dynamics associated with oil palm adoption. We use a mixed-methods approach to investigate the role of smallholder oil palm plasma schemes on men and women's time use in Kapuas Hulu District, West Kalimantan. Time allocation is an important determinant of well-being as well as maternal and child nutrition and an indicator of women's empowerment and gender equality. We integrate the results from a fractional multinomial logistic regression of data from 603 individuals with qualitative findings on the subjective experience of time allocation, as well as, the causes, consequences and coping strategies to manage trade-offs in time allocation. We find that relative to non-oil-palm adopting swidden farmers, participation in oil palm plasma schemes is associated with more time spent in productive labour for both men and women, driven by off-farm labour on oil palm plantations. For women, increased time comes at the cost of reduced time spent in rest, leisure and sleep. Increased time spent in off-farm labour drives households to adapt agricultural production methods, changing cash crop production as well as accelerating swidden transitions. These changes alter gender dynamics and responsibilities within the household. Our results suggest that changes in time allocation may have significant consequences for women's well-being and gender equity. Women in the oil palm site experienced greater stress over time scarcity and employed coping strategies more frequently. Our findings indicate that time allocation could be used as an indicator of the effects of oil palm expansion and adoption on well-being and that potential effects of time scarcity on well-being, gender equity, and maternal and child nutrition should be considered by policy makers when making land use decisions.

The Influence of Forests on Freshwater Fish in the Tropics: A Systematic Review.

Tropical forests influence freshwater fish through multiple pathways, only some of which are well documented. We systematically reviewed the literature to assess the current state of knowledge on forests and freshwater fish in the tropics. The existing evidence is mostly concentrated in the neotropics. The majority of studies provided evidence that fish diversity was higher where there was more forest cover; this was related to the greater heterogeneity of resources in forested environments that could support a wider range of species. Studies quantifying fish abundance (or biomass) showed mixed relationships with forest cover, depending on species-specific habitat preferences. We identify the key challenges limiting our current understanding of the forest-fish nexus and provide recommendations for future research to address these knowledge gaps. A clear understanding of the functional pathways in forest-freshwater ecosystems can improve evidence-based policy development concerned with deforestation, biodiversity conservation, and food insecurity in the tropics.

Conceptual Links between Landscape Diversity and Diet Diversity: A Roadmap for Transdisciplinary Research.

Malnutrition linked to poor quality diets affects at least 2 billion people. Forests, as well as agricultural systems linked to trees, are key sources of dietary diversity in rural settings. In the present article, we develop conceptual links between diet diversity and forested landscape mosaics within the rural tropics. First, we summarize the state of knowledge regarding diets obtained from forests, trees, and agroforests. We then hypothesize how disturbed secondary forests, edge habitats, forest access, and landscape diversity can function in bolstering dietary diversity. Taken together, these ideas help us build a framework illuminating four pathways (direct, agroecological, energy, and market pathways) connecting forested landscapes to diet diversity. Finally, we offer recommendations to fill remaining knowledge gaps related to diet and forest cover monitoring. We argue that better evaluation of the role of land cover complexity will help avoid overly simplistic views of food security and, instead, uncover nutritional synergies with forest conservation and restoration.

How Livelihood Change Affects Food Choice Behaviors in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Scoping Review.

Livelihoods have changed dramatically over the past decade in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). These shifts are happening in tandem with shifts in individual and household food choice behaviors. This scoping review aimed to identify and characterize mechanisms through which livelihood changes could affect food choice behaviors in LMIC, including behaviors relating to food production, acquisition, preparation, distribution, and consumption. A literature search was conducted using 4 databases: PubMed, PsycInfo, AGRICOLA, and Embase. The search was further enhanced by expert solicitations. Studies were included if they measured or focused on a livelihood change, described or assessed a change in ≥1 food choice behavior, and focused on LMIC. Studies were excluded if they focused on migration from LMIC to a high-income country. Of the 433 articles that were identified, 53 met the inclusion criteria. Five mechanisms of how livelihood change can affect food choice were identified: occupation, locality, time, income, and social relations. Changes in occupation altered the balance of the availability and affordability of foods in local food environments compared with individual food production. Changes in location, time use, and income influenced where food was purchased, what types of foods were acquired, and how or where foods were prepared. Additionally, changes in social relationships and norms led to expanded food preferences, particularly among urban populations. Time limitations and higher discretionary income were associated with consumption of ultraprocessed foods. Understanding the relationships between the changes in livelihood occuring in LMIC and food choices of households in these countries can inform the development of policies, programs, and other actions to promote sustainable healthy diets and planetary health.

Quantifying the contribution of mangroves to local fish consumption in Indonesia: a cross-sectional spatial analysis.

BACKGROUND: Indonesia has lost more mangroves than any other country. The importance of mangroves for carbon storage and biodiversity is well recognised, but much less is known about what they contribute to the communities living near them who are called on to protect them. Malnutrition in Indonesia is high, with more than a third of children stunted, partly due to poor diets. Fish are nutrient-rich and are the most widely consumed animal source food in Indonesia, making the relationship between mangroves and fish consumption of great importance. Aquaculture is also tremendously important for fish production in Indonesia and has replaced large areas of mangroves over the last two decades. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional, spatial analysis in this study. We combined data on fish consumption for rural Indonesian coastal households from the Indonesian National Socioeconomic Survey with spatial data on mangrove forest and aquaculture area from the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry to create a cross-sectional spatial dataset. Using a mixed-effects regression model, we estimated to what extent living in proximity to different densities of mangroves and aquaculture was associated with fresh fish consumption for rural coastal households. FINDINGS: Our sample included 6741 villages with 107 486 households in 2008. The results showed that rural coastal households residing near high-density mangroves consumed 28% (134/477) more fresh fish and other aquatic animals, and those residing near medium-density mangroves consumed 19% (90/477) more fresh fish and other aquatic animals, than coastal households who did not live near mangroves. Coastal households that lived near high-density aquaculture consumed 2% (9/536) more fresh fish, and those that lived near medium-density aquaculture consumed 1% (3/536) less, than other rural coastal households. INTERPRETATION: Mangroves contribute substantially to the food security and nutrition of coastal communities in Indonesia. This finding means that the conservation of mangroves is important not only for carbon storage and biodiversity, but also for the communities living near them. Aquaculture does not appear to offer similar food security benefits. FUNDING: Bureau for Economic Growth, Education, and Environment, United States Agency for International Development.

An approach to assess data-less small-scale fisheries: examples from Congo rivers.

Small-scale fisheries (SSF) account for much of the global fish catch, but data to assess them often do not exist, impeding assessments of their historical dynamics and status. Here, we propose an approach to assess 'data-less' SSF using local knowledge to produce data, life history theory to describe their historical multispecies dynamics, and length-based reference points to evaluate stock status. We demonstrate use of this approach in three data-less SSFs of the Congo Basin. Fishers' recalls of past fishing events indicated fish catch declined by 65-80% over the last half-century. Declines in and depletion of many historically important species reduced the diversity of exploited species, making the species composition of the catch more homogenous in recent years. Length-at-catch of 11 of the 12 most important species were below their respective lengths-at-maturity and optimal lengths (obtained from Fishbase) in recent years, indicating overfishing. The most overfished species were large-bodied and found in the Congo mainstem. These results show the approach can suitably assess data-less SSF. Fishers' knowledge produced data at a fraction of the cost and effort of collecting fisheries landings data. Historical and current data on fish catch, length-at-catch, and species diversity can inform management and restoration efforts to curb shifting baselines of these fisheries. Classification of stock status allows prioritizing management efforts. The approach is easy to apply and generates intuitive results, having potential to complement the toolkits of researchers and managers working in SSF and engage stakeholders in decision-making processes. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11160-023-09770-x.

A systematic mapping review of links between handling wild meat and zoonotic diseases.

1.Hunting, trade, and consumption of wildlife present a serious threat to global public health as it places humans in close contact with zoonotic pathogens.2.We systematically mapped the literature on wild meat handling and zoonotic disease transmission (1996-2022) using the online database Web of Science and Google search engine and identified 6229 articles out of which 253 were finally selected for use in our mapping review; 51 of these provided specific information regarding transmission risks.3.The reviewed studies reported 43 zoonotic pathogens (17 bacteria, 15 viruses, and 11 parasites) that could pose a potential risk to human health.4.Sixteen hygienic and sanitary behaviours were described in the reviewed studies. Disease surveillance was the most frequent. Most of the surveillance studies were carried out in Europe and were less common in the tropics.5.To inform policy and practical actions effectively, it is imperative to broaden our understanding of how various mitigation behaviours can be employed to minimize the risk of transmission.

Agricultural intensification and changes in cultivated areas, 1970-2005.

Does the intensification of agriculture reduce cultivated areas and, in so doing, spare some lands by concentrating production on other lands? Such sparing is important for many reasons, among them the enhanced abilities of released lands to sequester carbon and provide other environmental services. Difficulties measuring the extent of spared land make it impossible to investigate fully the hypothesized causal chain from agricultural intensification to declines in cultivated areas and then to increases in spared land. We analyze the historical circumstances in which rising yields have been accompanied by declines in cultivated areas, thereby leading to land-sparing. We use national-level United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization data on trends in cropland from 1970-2005, with particular emphasis on the 1990-2005 period, for 10 major crop types. Cropland has increased more slowly than population during this period, but paired increases in yields and declines in cropland occurred infrequently, both globally and nationally. Agricultural intensification was not generally accompanied by decline or stasis in cropland area at a national scale during this time period, except in countries with grain imports and conservation set-aside programs. Future projections of cropland abandonment and ensuing environmental services cannot be assumed without explicit policy intervention.

Prevalence, correlates of undernutrition and intestinal parasitic infection among children below 5 years living in the forest community of Ndelele, East Region of Cameroon: A cross-sectional assessment.

In low- and middle-income countries, undernutrition often co-exists with intestinal parasites, especially Soil Transmitted Helminth (STH) infections in children. The collective impact of both conditions result in undernutrition and can exacerbate the general poor health status of children. A cross-sectional survey of 422 mother-child (12-59 months old) pairs from 14 villages in the District of Ndelele, East Region of Cameroon, was carried out to assess the magnitude and correlates of undernutrition and intestinal parasites. Socio-demographic data were collected from mothers and anthropometric data were collected from children. Parasitological assessment was performed using a combination of direct microscopy flotation, sedimentation and centrifugation techniques. Correlates of undernutrition and intestinal parasites were identified using multinomial logistic regression at individual and household levels. 83.77% of the children assessed for undernutrition were undernourished and 66.82% were positive for one or more intestinal parasites. It was not uncommon for the study participants to be concurrently infected with two or more intestinal parasites. The most common intestinal parasitic infections detected in the study were A. lumbricoides, E. histolytica/dispar and Hookworm infection. Multinomial logistic regression using Nutritional status as outcome showed that, children who were not exclusively breastfed were 106% (RR = 2.06; C.I = 1.12-3.80) more likely to be underweight compared to those who were exclusively breastfed. The household size of 4 to 6 persons also significantly impacted wasting (p-value = 0.007) at 7% (RR = 1.07, C.I = 0.49-2.32). Analysis by a logistic regression model with STH infection as outcome revealed that, Fingernail cleanness (p-value = 0.044; AOR = 1.75; CI = 1.09-2.78) and household size (p-value = 0.038; AOR = 0.55; CI = 0.32-0.92) were positively associated with intestinal parasite infection at the 5% significant level. This study reveals that intestinal helminthic parasitic infections (STH) and undernutrition are serious health problems in children below five in the study area. To address this dire situation, concerted efforts are needed to improve sanitation, hygiene education access, community deworming programs, and improve diets.

Transforming food systems with trees and forests.

The global food system is failing to deliver sufficient and nutritious food to all, while damaging the earth and unsustainably drawing down its resources. We argue that trees and forests are essential to solving these challenges. We outline the current contributions of trees and forests to the global food system and present recommendations to leverage these contributions as part of the efforts to reshape food systems to better support healthy diets and environmental sustainability. Trees and forests provide nutrient-rich foods, incomes for food security, ecosystem services for food production, and add resilience to food systems. At the same time, trees and forests protect biodiversity and mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration. We recommend four approaches to realise the full potential of trees and forests to contribute to healthy and sustainable food systems: scaling up current tree-based food production, reorientating some agricultural investments towards nutrient-dense food production, repurposing production incentives from support of calorie-rich but nutrient-poor foods to support nutrient-dense foods, and integrate nutrition objectives into forest conservation and restoration programmes. Trees and forests have important roles to play in the transformation of our food systems, but more needs to be done to ensure that these roles are realised.

Wild Food Plants and Trends in Their Use: From Knowledge and Perceptions to Drivers of Change in West Sumatra, Indonesia.

Wild food plants (WFPs) are often highly nutritious but under-consumed at the same time. This study aimed to document the diversity of WFPs, and assess perceptions, attitudes, and drivers of change in their consumption among Minangkabau and Mandailing women farmers in West Sumatra. We applied a mixed-method approach consisting of interviews with 200 women and focus group discussions with 68 participants. The study documented 106 WFPs (85 species), and Minangkabau were found to steward richer traditional knowledge than Mandailing. Although both communities perceived WFPs positively, consumption has declined over the last generation. The main reasons perceived by respondents were due to the decreased availability of WFPs and changes in lifestyle. The contemporary barriers to consuming WFPs were low availability, time constraints, and a limited knowledge of their nutritional value. The key motivations for their use were that they are free and "unpolluted" natural foods. The main drivers of change were socio-economic factors and changes in agriculture and markets. However, the persistence of a strong culture appears to slow dietary changes. The communities, government and NGOs should work together to optimize the use of this food biodiversity in a sustainable way. This integrated approach could improve nutrition while conserving biological and cultural diversity.

The relationship between forests and freshwater fish consumption in rural Nigeria.

Nigerians depend on fish for maintaining diverse and healthy diets. Fish are a key source of protein and micronutrients, both of which are important for healthy diets. Some research has shown that forests provide important ecosystem functions that support the productive capacity and sustainability of inland fisheries. Our study aims to empirically assess the relationship between forest cover around rivers and fish consumption. We use data from the Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS) and spatially merge household and village data with forest cover and river maps. We estimate the relationship between forest cover around rivers and average village fresh fish consumption, while also accounting for other socio-economic and geographical determinants. We find that that the density of forest cover around rivers is positively and significantly correlated with village consumption of fresh fish. Our results suggest that forests influence the consumption of fresh fish by improving the productivity of inland fisheries and increasing the availability of fish. Aquatic habitats tend to be overlooked in debates on land use and food production, and yet can be critically important sources of nutrient-rich foods that are limited in rural diets in developing countries, particularly for the poor. Clearing forests for agriculture in order to produce more agricultural crops might have the unintended consequence of reducing another important food source.

Dietary intake, forest foods, and anemia in Southwest Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: Forest cover has been associated with higher dietary diversity and better diet quality in Africa. Anemia prevalence among women of reproductive age in sub-Saharan Africa is very high and diet is one known contributor of a high prevalence rate. We investigated whether living in communities with high forest cover was associated with better diet quality and lower anemia prevalence among women of reproductive age in Southwest Cameroon. METHODOLOGY: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 247 women of reproductive age from four forest-based villages (n = 126) and four non-forest villages (n = 121). We assessed the Hemoglobin (Hb) levels, anthropometric status, and diet (by 24-hour recall), as well as anemia-related morbidity and socio-demographic characteristics. Differences between groups were assessed with Pearson's chi-square and independent T-tests. We used a number of multivariate regression models to estimate the impacts of forest proximity on adjusted hemoglobin status of women of reproductive age, as well as to identify the most likely pathway through which forest proximity was important. RESULTS: We found that women living in forest communities had higher adjusted hemoglobin levels (mean hemoglobin concentration 11.10±1.53 g/dl vs.10.68±1.55g/dl; p = 0.03 for women forest and non-forest communities respectively). Moderate to severe anemia prevalence was significantly higher in women living in the non-forest villages compared to women in forest villages (forest 63% vs. 73%; p = 0.04). Compared with women from non-forest villages, women from forest-based villages had consumed significantly more vitamin A rich fruits and vegetables and animal source foods, and more of these came from the forest (as opposed to the farm or purchased sources). We found that the consumption of Gnetum africanum (Eru), a leafy green vegetable that grows in forests of the Congo Basis, was best able to account for the higher levels of adjusted hemoglobin in women in forest communities. CONCLUSION: This study contributes to the growing evidence that in some circumstances, forests make important contributions to diet quality and nutrition. The results of this study suggest that plant foods from the forest may make important contributions to iron intake and reduce the risk of anemia in women. Efforts to prevent forest loss and maintain ecosystem services are warranted to enhance nutrition and health of forest-based communities.

Forests, Trees, and Micronutrient-Rich Food Consumption in Indonesia.

Micronutrient deficiency remains a serious problem in Indonesia with approximately 100 million people, or 40% of the population, suffering from one or more micronutrient deficiencies. In rural areas with poor market access, forests and trees may provide an essential source of nutritious food. This is especially important to understand at a time when forests and other tree-based systems in Indonesia are being lost at unprecedented rates. We use food consumption data from the 2003 Indonesia Demographic Health Survey for children between the ages of one and five years and data on vegetation cover from the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry to examine whether there is a relationship between different tree-dominated land classes and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods across the archipelago. We run our models on the aggregate sample which includes over 3000 observations from 25 provinces across Indonesia as well as on sub-samples from different provinces chosen to represent the different land classes. The results show that different tree-dominated land classes were associated with the dietary quality of people living within them in the provinces where they were dominant. Areas of swidden/agroforestry, natural forest, timber and agricultural tree crop plantations were all associated with more frequent consumption of food groups rich in micronutrients in the areas where these were important land classes. The swidden/agroforestry land class was the landscape associated with more frequent consumption of the largest number of micronutrient rich food groups. Further research needs to be done to establish what the mechanisms are that underlie these associations. Swidden cultivation in is often viewed as a backward practice that is an impediment to food security in Indonesia and destructive of the environment. If further research corroborates that swidden farming actually results in better nutrition than the practices that replace it, Indonesian policy makers may need to reconsider their views on this land use.