Stress, microRNAs, and stress-related psychiatric disorders: an overview.

Stress is a major risk factor for psychiatric disorders. During and after exposure to stressors, the stress response may have pro- or maladaptive consequences, depending on several factors related to the individual response and nature of the stressor. However, the mechanisms mediating the long-term effects of exposure to stress, which may ultimately lead to the development of stress-related disorders, are still largely unknown. Epigenetic mechanisms have been shown to mediate the effects of the environment on brain gene expression and behavior. MicroRNAs, small non-coding RNAs estimated to control the expression of about 60% of all genes by post-transcriptional regulation, are a fundamental epigenetic mechanism. Many microRNAs are expressed in the brain, where they work as fine-tuners of gene expression, with a key role in the regulation of homeostatic balance, and a likely influence on pro- or maladaptive brain changes. Here we have selected a number of microRNAs, which have been strongly implicated as mediators of the effects of stress in the brain and in the development of stress-related psychiatric disorders. For all of them recent evidence is reported, obtained from rodent stress models, manipulation of microRNAs levels with related behavioral changes, and clinical studies of stress-related psychiatric disorders. Moreover, we have performed a bioinformatic analysis of the predicted brain-expressed target genes of the microRNAs discussed, and found a central role for mechanisms involved in the regulation of synaptic function. The complex regulatory role of microRNAs has suggested their use as biomarkers for diagnosis and treatment response, as well as possible therapeutic drugs. While, microRNA-based diagnostics have registered advancements, particularly in oncology and other fields, and many biotech companies have launched miRNA therapeutics in their development pipeline, the development of microRNA-based tests and drugs for brain disorders is comparatively slower.

Differential Epigenetic Changes in the Dorsal Hippocampus of Male and Female SAMP8 Mice: A Preliminary Study.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common age-related neurodegenerative disease characterized by memory loss and cognitive impairment. The causes of the disease are not well understood, as it involves a complex interaction between genetic, environmental, and epigenetic factors. SAMP8 mice have been proposed as a model for studying late-onset AD, since they show age-related learning and memory deficits as well as several features of AD pathogenesis. Epigenetic changes have been described in SAMP8 mice, although sex differences have never been evaluated. Here we used western blot and qPCR analyses to investigate whether epigenetic markers are differentially altered in the dorsal hippocampus, a region important for the regulation of learning and memory, of 9-month-old male and female SAMP8 mice. We found that H3Ac was selectively reduced in male SAMP8 mice compared to male SAMR1 control mice, but not in female mice, whereas H3K27me3 was reduced overall in SAMP8 mice. Moreover, the levels of HDAC2 and JmjD3 were increased, whereas the levels of HDAC4 and Dnmt3a were reduced in SAMP8 mice compared to SAMR1. In addition, levels of HDAC1 were reduced, whereas Utx and Jmjd3 were selectively increased in females compared to males. Although our results are preliminary, they suggest that epigenetic mechanisms in the dorsal hippocampus are differentially regulated in male and female SAMP8 mice.

Acute stress induces an aberrant increase of presynaptic release of glutamate and cellular activation in the hippocampus of BDNFVal/Met mice.

Stressful life events are considered major risk factors for the development of several psychiatric disorders, though people differentially cope with stress. The reasons for this are still largely unknown but could be accounted for by individual genetic variants, previous life events, or the kind of stressors. The human brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) Val66Met variant, which was found to impair intracellular trafficking and activity-dependent secretion of BDNF, has been associated with increased susceptibility to develop several neuropsychiatric disorders, although there is still some controversial evidence. On the other hand, acute stress has been consistently demonstrated to promote the release of glutamate in cortico-limbic regions and altered glutamatergic transmission has been reported in psychiatric disorders. However, it is not known if the BDNF Val66Met single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) affects the stress-induced presynaptic glutamate release. In this study, we exposed adult male BDNFVal/Val and BDNFVal/Met knock-in mice to 30 min of acute restraint stress. Plasma corticosterone levels, glutamate release, protein, and gene expression in the hippocampus were analyzed immediately after the end of the stress session. Acute restraint stress similarly increased plasma corticosterone levels and nuclear glucocorticoid receptor levels and phosphorylation in both BDNFVal/Val and BDNFVal/Met mice. However, acute restraint stress induced higher increases in hippocampal presynaptic release of glutamate, phosphorylation of cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB), and levels of the immediate early gene c-fos of BDNFVal/Met compared to BFNFVal/Val mice. Moreover, acute restraint stress selectively increased phosphorylation levels of synapsin I at Ser9 and at Ser603 in BDNFVal/Val and BDNFVal/Met mice, respectively. In conclusion, we report here that the BDNF Val66Met SNP knock-in mice display an altered response to acute restraint stress in terms of hippocampal glutamate release, CREB phosphorylation, and neuronal activation, compared to wild-type animals. Taken together, these results could partially explain the enhanced vulnerability to stressful events of Met carriers reported in both preclinical and clinical studies.

BDNF Val66Met polymorphism alters food intake and hypothalamic BDNF expression in mice.

Obesity, a rising public health burden, is a multifactorial disease with an increased risk for patients to develop several pathological conditions including type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. Increasing evidence suggests a relationship between the human brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) Val66Met single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and obesity, although the underlying mechanisms of this connection are still not completely understood. In the present study, we found that homozygous knock-in BDNFMet/Met mice were overweight and hyperphagic compared to wildtype BDNFVal/Val mice. Increased food intake was associated with reduction of total BDNF and BDNF1, BDNF4 and BDNF6 transcripts in the hypothalamus of BDNFMet/Met mice. In contrast, in the white adipose tissue total BDNF and Glut4 expression levels were augmented, while sirtuin 1 and leptin receptor (Ob-R) expression levels were reduced in BDNFMet/Met mice. Moreover, plasmatic leptin levels were decreased in BDNFMet/Met mice. However, BDNFVal/Val and BDNFMet/Met mice showed a similar response to the insulin tolerance test and glucose tolerance test. Altogether, these results suggest that BDNF Val66Met SNP strongly contributes to adipose tissue pathophysiology, resulting in reduced circulating leptin levels and hypothalamic expression of BDNF, which, in turn, promote increased food intake and overweight in BDNFMet/Met mice.

Kynurenine pathway is altered in BDNF Val66Met knock-in mice: Effect of physical exercise.

The Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Val66Met polymorphism has been correlated with increased predisposition to develop cognitive and psychiatric disorders, and with a reduced response to some therapeutic treatments. However, the mechanisms underlying these impairments are currently not completely understood. Remarkably, kynurenine pathway alterations have also been implicated in cognitive and psychiatric disorders. Moreover, recent evidence suggests that physical exercise may promote beneficial effects by controlling kynurenine metabolism in the muscle. The aim of the present study was to assess whether the kynurenine pathway was differentially regulated in sedentary and exercising wild-type (BDNFVal/Val) and homozygous knock-in BDNF Val66Met (BDNFMet/Met) mice. We found that plasma and hippocampal levels of kynurenic acid and the hippocampal mRNA levels of IDO1 and KAT2 protein levels were increased in BDNFMet/Met mice and were not modulated by physical exercise. On the contrary, KAT1 protein levels in the gastrocnemius muscle were reduced, whereas MCP1 mRNA in the gastrocnemius muscle and GFAP protein in the hippocampus were increased in BDNFMet/Met mice compared to BDNFVal/Val mice, and reduced by physical exercise. Physical exercise increased plasmatic kynurenine levels only in BDNFMet/Met mice, and protein levels of KAT1 and KAT4 in the gastrocnemius muscle and hippocampus respectively, regardless of the genotype. Finally, we found that physical exercise was able to enhance the hippocampal-dependent memory only in the BDNFVal/Val mice. Overall our results showing an overactivation of the kynurenine pathway in the BDNFMet/Met mice may suggest a possible mechanism underlying the cognitive deficits reported in the BDNF Val66Met carriers.

Impact of Acute and Chronic Stress on Thrombosis in Healthy Individuals and Cardiovascular Disease Patients.

Psychological stress induces different alterations in the organism in order to maintain homeostasis, including changes in hematopoiesis and hemostasis. In particular, stress-induced hyper activation of the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis can trigger cellular and molecular alterations in platelets, coagulation factors, endothelial function, redox balance, and sterile inflammatory response. For this reason, mental stress is reported to enhance the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, contrasting results are often found in the literature considering differences in the response to acute or chronic stress and the health condition of the population analyzed. Since thrombosis is the most common underlying pathology of CVDs, the comprehension of the mechanisms at the basis of the association between stress and this pathology is highly valuable. The aim of this work is to give a comprehensive review of the studies focused on the role of acute and chronic stress in both healthy individuals and CVD patients, focusing on the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the relationship between stress and thrombosis.

Depression and Cardiovascular Disease: The Viewpoint of Platelets.

Depression is a major cause of morbidity and low quality of life among patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD), and it is now considered as an independent risk factor for major adverse cardiovascular events. Increasing evidence indicates not only that depression worsens the prognosis of cardiac events, but also that a cross-vulnerability between the two conditions occurs. Among the several mechanisms proposed to explain this interplay, platelet activation is the more attractive, seeing platelets as potential mirror of the brain function. In this review, we dissected the mechanisms linking depression and CVD highlighting the critical role of platelet behavior during depression as trigger of cardiovascular complication. In particular, we will discuss the relationship between depression and molecules involved in the CVD (e.g., catecholamines, adipokines, lipids, reactive oxygen species, and chemokines), emphasizing their impact on platelet activation and related mechanisms.

Global epigenetic analysis of BDNF Val66Met mice hippocampus reveals changes in dendrite and spine remodeling genes.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a neurotrophin highly expressed in the hippocampus, plays crucial roles in cognition, neuroplasticity, synaptic function, and dendritic remodeling. The common human Val66Met polymorphism of BDNF has been implicated in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, and in the outcome of pro-adaptive and therapeutic treatments. Altered gene-expression profile has been previously shown in BDNF Val66Met knock-in mice, which recapitulate the phenotypic hallmarks of individuals carrying the BDNF Met allele. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism in the knock-in mouse model on two hippocampal epigenetic marks for transcriptional repression and activation, respectively: trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone H3 (H3K27me3) and acetylation of histone H3 (AcH3), using a genome-wide approach. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing of immunoprecipitated DNA (ChIP-Seq) was carried out with specific antibodies for H3K27me3 and AcH3. Our results revealed broad alteration of H3K27me3 and AcH3 marks association profiles in BDNFMet/Met , compared to BDNFVal/Val mice. Bioinformatics analysis showed changes in several biological functions and related pathways, affected by the presence of the polymorphism. In particular, a number of networks of functional interaction contained BDNF as central node. Quantitative PCR analysis confirmed epigenetically related significant changes in the expression of five genes: Dvl1, Nos3, Reln, Lypd6, and Sh3gl2. The first three are involved in dendrite and spine remodeling, morphological features altered in BDNFMet/Met mice. This work in homozygous knock-in mice shows that the human BDNF Val66Met polymorphism induces an array of histone H3 epigenetic modifications, in turn altering the expression of select genes crucial for structural and functional neuronal features.

Nicotinamide Inhibits Ethanol-Induced Caspase-3 and PARP-1 Over-activation and Subsequent Neurodegeneration in the Developing Mouse Cerebellum.

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is the principal preventable cause of mental retardation in the western countries resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy. Ethanol-induced massive neuronal cell death occurs mainly in immature neurons during the brain growth spurt period. The cerebellum is one of the brain areas that are most sensitive to ethanol neurotoxicity. Currently, there is no effective treatment that targets the causes of these disorders and efficient treatments to counteract or reverse FASD are desirable. In this study, we investigated the effects of nicotinamide on ethanol-induced neuronal cell death in the developing cerebellum. Subcutaneous administration of ethanol in postnatal 4-day-old mice induced an over-activation of caspase-3 and PARP-1 followed by a massive neurodegeneration in the developing cerebellum. Interestingly, treatment with nicotinamide, immediately or 2 h after ethanol exposure, diminished caspase-3 and PARP-1 over-activation and reduced ethanol-induced neurodegeneration. Conversely, treatment with 3-aminobenzadine, a specific PARP-1 inhibitor, was able to completely block PARP-1 activation, but not caspase-3 activation or ethanol-induced neurodegeneration in the developing cerebellum. Our results showed that nicotinamide reduces ethanol-induced neuronal cell death and inhibits both caspase-3 and PARP-1 alcohol-induced activation in the developing cerebellum, suggesting that nicotinamide might be a promising and safe neuroprotective agent for treating FASD and other neurodegenerative disorders in the developing brain that shares similar cell death pathways.

BDNFVal66met polymorphism: a potential bridge between depression and thrombosis.

AIMS: Epidemiological studies strongly suggest a link between stress, depression, and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs); the mechanistic correlation, however, is poorly understood. A single-nucleotide polymorphism in the BDNF gene (BDNFVal66Met), associated with depression and anxiety, has been proposed as a genetic risk factor for CVD. Using a knock-in mouse carrying the BDNFVal66Met human polymorphism, which phenocopies psychiatric-related symptoms found in humans, we investigated the impact of this SNP on thrombosis. METHODS AND RESULTS: BDNFMet/Met mice displayed a depressive-like phenotype concomitantly with hypercoagulable state and platelet hyperreactivity. Proteomic analysis of aorta secretome from BDNFMet/Met and wild-type (WT) mice showed differential expression of proteins involved in the coagulation and inflammatory cascades. The BDNF Met allele predisposed to carotid artery thrombosis FeCl3-induced and to death after collagen/epinephrine injection. Interestingly, transfection with BDNFMet construct induced a prothrombotic/proinflammatory phenotype in WT cells. SIRT1 activation, using resveratrol and/or CAY10591, prevented thrombus formation and restored the physiological levels of coagulation and of platelet markers in BDNFMet/Met mice and/or cells transfected with the Met allele. Conversely, inhibition of SIRT1 by sirtinol and/or by specific siRNA induced the prothrombotic/proinflammatory phenotype in WT mice and cells. Finally, we found that BDNF Met homozygosity is associated with increased risk of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in humans. CONCLUSION: Activation of platelets, alteration in coagulation pathways, and changes in vessel wall protein expression in BDNFMet/Met mice recapitulate well the features occurring in the anxiety/depression condition. Furthermore, our data suggest that the BDNFVal66Met polymorphism contribute to the individual propensity for arterial thrombosis related to AMI.

Association between Obesity and Circulating Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Levels: Systematic Review of Literature and Meta-Analysis.

Reduction in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the brain as well as mutations in BDNF gene and/or of its receptor are associated to obesity in both human and animal models. However, the association between circulating levels of BDNF and obesity is still not defined. To answer this question, we performed a meta-analysis carrying out a systematic search in electronic databases. Ten studies (307 obese patients and 236 controls) were included in the analysis. Our data show that obese patients have levels of BDNF similar to those of controls (SMD: 0.01, 95% CI: -0.28, 0.30, p = 0.94). The lack of difference was further confirmed both in studies in which BDNF levels were assessed in serum (MD: -0.93 ng/mL, 95% CI: -3.34, 1.48, p = 0.45) and in plasma (MD: 0.15 ng/mL, 95% CI: -0.09, 0.39, p = 0.23). Data evaluation has shown that some bias might affect BDNF measurements (e.g., subject recruitment, procedures of sampling, handling, and storage), leading to a difficult interpretation of the results. Standardization of the procedures is still needed to reach strong, affordable, and reliable conclusions.

Sub-Chronic Stress Exacerbates the Pro-Thrombotic Phenotype in BDNFVal/Met Mice: Gene-Environment Interaction in the Modulation of Arterial Thrombosis.

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Val66Met polymorphism has been associated with increased susceptibility to develop mood disorders and recently it has been also linked with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Interestingly, stressful conditions unveil the anxious/depressive-like behavioral phenotype in heterozygous BDNFVal66Met (BDNFVal/Met) mice, suggesting an important relationship in terms of gene-environment interaction (GxE). However, the interplay between stress and BDNFVal/Met in relation to CVD is completely unknown. Here, we showed that BDNFVal/Met mice display a greater propensity to arterial thrombosis than wild type BDNFVal/Val mice after 7 days of restraint stress (RS). RS markedly increased the number of leukocytes and platelets, and induced hyper-responsive platelets as showed by increased circulating platelet/leukocyte aggregates and enhanced expression of P-selectin and GPIIbIIIa in heterozygous mutant mice. In addition, stressed BDNFVal/Met mice had a greater number of large and reticulated platelets but comparable number and maturation profile of bone marrow megakaryocytes compared to BDNFVal/Val mice. Interestingly, RS led to a significant reduction of BDNF expression accompanied by an increased activity of tissue factor in the aorta of both BDNFVal/Val and BDNFVal/Met mice. In conclusion, we provide evidence that sub-chronic stress unveils prothrombotic phenotype in heterozygous BDNF Val66Met mice affecting both the number and functionality of blood circulating cells, and the expression of key thrombotic molecules in aorta. Human studies will be crucial to understand whether this GxE interaction need to be taken into account in risk stratification of coronary artery disease (CAD) patients.

Effect of Clotting Duration and Temperature on BDNF Measurement in Human Serum.

Brain-derived neurothrophic factor (BDNF) is a neurotrophin expressed in different tissues and cells, including neurons, endothelial cells, leukocytes, megakaryocytes and platelets. Modifications of BDNF in plasma and/or in serum are associated with neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome and with mortality risk. Indeed, changes in blood levels of BDNF may reflect those of its tissue of origin and/or promote pathological dysfunctions. The measurement of BDNF amount in plasma or in serum has been characterized with particular attention in the impact of different anti-coagulants, clotting duration, temperature (≤21 °C) and delay in blood sample centrifugation as well as in stability of storage. However, the influences of normothermic conditions (37 °C) and of clotting duration on BDNF levels in human serum have not been investigated yet. Here, we showed that time and temperature during serum preparation could be taken into consideration to assess the association and/or impact of BDNF levels in the occurrence of pathological conditions.

Social Isolation Stress Induces Anxious-Depressive-Like Behavior and Alterations of Neuroplasticity-Related Genes in Adult Male Mice.

Stress is a major risk factor in the onset of several neuropsychiatric disorders including anxiety and depression. Although several studies have shown that social isolation stress during postweaning period induces behavioral and brain molecular changes, the effects of social isolation on behavior during adulthood have been less characterized. Aim of this work was to investigate the relationship between the behavioral alterations and brain molecular changes induced by chronic social isolation stress in adult male mice. Plasma corticosterone levels and adrenal glands weight were also analyzed. Socially isolated (SI) mice showed higher locomotor activity, spent less time in the open field center, and displayed higher immobility time in the tail suspension test compared to group-housed (GH) mice. SI mice exhibited reduced plasma corticosterone levels and reduced difference between right and left adrenal glands. SI showed lower mRNA levels of the BDNF-7 splice variant, c-Fos, Arc, and Egr-1 in both hippocampus and prefrontal cortex compared to GH mice. Finally, SI mice exhibited selectively reduced mGluR1 and mGluR2 levels in the prefrontal cortex. Altogether, these results suggest that anxious- and depressive-like behavior induced by social isolation stress correlates with reduction of several neuroplasticity-related genes in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of adult male mice.

Physical exercise and acute restraint stress differentially modulate hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor transcripts and epigenetic mechanisms in mice.

Physical exercise and stressful experiences have been shown to exert opposite effects on behavioral functions and brain plasticity, partly by involving the action of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Although epigenetic modifications are known to play a pivotal role in the regulation of the different BDNF transcripts, it is poorly understood whether epigenetic mechanisms are also implied in the BDNF modulation induced by physical exercise and stress. Here, we show that total BDNF mRNA levels and BDNF transcripts 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7 were reduced immediately after acute restraint stress (RS) in the hippocampus of mice, and returned to control levels 24 h after the stress session. On the contrary, exercise increased BDNF mRNA expression and counteracted the stress-induced decrease of BDNF transcripts. Physical exercise-induced up-regulation of BDNF transcripts was accounted for by increase in histone H3 acetylated levels at specific BDNF promoters, whereas the histone H3 trimethylated lysine 27 and dimethylated lysine 9 levels were unaffected. Acute RS did not change the levels of acetylated and methylated histone H3 at the BDNF promoters. Furthermore, we found that physical exercise and RS were able to differentially modulate the histone deacetylases mRNA levels. Finally, we report that a single treatment with histone deacetylase inhibitors, prior to acute stress exposure, prevented the down-regulation of total BDNF and BDNF transcripts 1, 2, 3, and 6, partially reproducing the effect of physical exercise. Overall, these results suggest that physical exercise and stress are able to differentially modulate the expression of BDNF transcripts by possible different epigenetic mechanisms.

Expression and Dendritic Trafficking of BDNF-6 Splice Variant are Impaired in Knock-In Mice Carrying Human BDNF Val66Met Polymorphism.

BACKGROUND: The human Val66Met polymorphism in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a key factor in neuroplasticity, synaptic function, and cognition, has been implicated in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. BDNF is encoded by multiple transcripts with distinct regulation and localization, but the impact of the Val66Met polymorphism on BDNF regulation remains unclear. METHODS: In BDNF Val66Met knock-in mice, which recapitulate the phenotypic hallmarks of individuals carrying the BDNF(Met) allele, we measured expression levels, epigenetic changes at promoters, and dendritic trafficking of distinct BDNF transcripts using quantitative PCR, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), and in situ hybridization. RESULTS: BDNF-4 and BDNF-6 transcripts were reduced in BDNF(Met/Met) mice, compared with BDNF(Val/Val) mice. ChIP for acetyl-histone H3, a marker of active gene transcription, and trimethyl-histone-H3-Lys27 (H3K27me3), a marker of gene repression, showed higher H3K27me3 binding to exon 5, 6, and 8 promoters in BDNF(Met/Met). The H3K27 methyltransferase enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is involved in epigenetic regulation of BDNF expression, because in neuroblastoma cells BDNF expression was increased both by short interference RNA for EZH2 and incubation with 3-deazaneplanocin A, an inhibitor of EZH2. In situ hybridization for BDNF-2, BDNF-4, and BDNF-6 after pilocarpine treatment showed that BDNF-6 transcript was virtually absent from distal dendrites of the CA1 and CA3 regions in BDNF(Met/Met) mice, while no changes were found for BDNF-2 and BDNF-4. CONCLUSIONS: Impaired BDNF expression and dendritic targeting in BDNF(Met/Met) mice may contribute to reduced regulated secretion of BDNF at synapses, and may be a specific correlate of pathology in individuals carrying the Met allele.

The galactocerebrosidase enzyme contributes to maintain a functional neurogenic niche during early post-natal CNS development.

We report a novel role for the lysosomal galactosylceramidase (GALC), which is defective in globoid cell leukodystrophy (GLD), in maintaining a functional post-natal subventricular zone (SVZ) neurogenic niche. We show that proliferation/self-renewal of neural stem cells (NSCs) and survival of their neuronal and oligodendroglial progeny are impaired in GALC-deficient mice. Using drugs to modulate inflammation and gene transfer to rescue GALC expression and activity, we show that lipid accumulation resulting from GALC deficiency acts as a cell-autonomous pathogenic stimulus in enzyme-deficient NSCs and progeny before upregulation of inflammatory markers, which later sustain a non-cell-autonomous dysfunction. Importantly, we provide evidence that supply of functional GALC provided by neonatal intracerebral transplantation of NSCs ameliorates the functional impairment in endogenous SVZ cells. Insights into the mechanism/s underlying GALC-mediated regulation of early post-natal neurogenic niches improve our understanding of the multi-component pathology of GLD. The occurrence of a restricted period of SVZ neurogenesis in infancy supports the implications of our study for the development of therapeutic strategies to treat this severe pediatric neurodegenerative disorder.

NADPH-oxidases as potential pharmacological targets for thrombosis and depression comorbidity.

There is a complex interrelationship between the nervous system and the cardiovascular system. Comorbidities of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) with mental disorders, and vice versa, are prevalent. Adults with mental disorders such as anxiety and depression have a higher risk of developing CVD, and people with CVD have an increased risk of being diagnosed with mental disorders. Oxidative stress is one of the many pathways associated with the pathophysiology of brain and cardiovascular disease. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX) is one of the major generators of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mammalian cells, as it is the enzyme that specifically produces superoxide. This review summarizes recent findings on the consequences of NOX activation in thrombosis and depression. It also discusses the therapeutic effects and pharmacological strategies of NOX inhibitors in CVD and brain disorders. A better comprehension of these processes could facilitate the development of new therapeutic approaches for the prevention and treatment of the comorbidity of thrombosis and depression.

Short- and Long-Term Effects of Subchronic Stress Exposure in Male and Female Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Knock-In Val66Met Mice.

Stress is an important risk factor for the onset of anxiety and depression. The ability to cope with stressful events varies among different subjects, probably depending on different genetic variants, sex and previous life experiences. The Val66Met variant of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), which impairs the activity-dependent secretion of BDNF, has been associated with increased susceptibility to the development of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Adult male and female wild-type Val/Val (BDNFV/V) and heterozygous Val/Met (BDNFV/M) mice were exposed to two sessions of forced swimming stress (FSS) per day for two consecutive days. The mice were behaviorally tested 1 day (short-term effect) or 11 days (long-term effect) after the last stress session. Protein and mRNA levels were measured in the hippocampus 16 days after the end of stress exposure. Stressed mice showed a higher anxiety-like phenotype compared to non-stressed mice, regardless of the sex and genotype, when analyzed following the short period of stress. In the prolonged period, anxiety-like behavior persisted only in male BDNFV/M mice (p < 0.0001). Interestingly, recovery in male BDNFV/V mice was accompanied by an increase in pCREB (p < 0.001) and Bdnf4 (p < 0.01) transcript and a decrease in HDAC1 (p < 0.05) and Dnmt3a (p = 0.01) in the hippocampus. Overall, our results show that male and female BDNF Val66Met knock-in mice can recover from subchronic stress in different ways.

Binding of the repressor complex REST-mSIN3b by small molecules restores neuronal gene transcription in Huntington's disease models.

Transcriptional dysregulation is a hallmark of Huntington's disease (HD) and one cause of this dysregulation is enhanced activity of the REST-mSIN3a-mSIN3b-CoREST-HDAC repressor complex, which silences transcription through REST binding to the RE1/NRSE silencer. Normally, huntingtin (HTT) prevents this binding, allowing expressing of REST target genes. Here, we aimed to identify HTT mimetics that disrupt REST complex formation in HD. From a structure-based virtual screening of 7 million molecules, we selected 94 compounds predicted to interfere with REST complex formation by targeting the PAH1 domain of mSIN3b. Primary screening using DiaNRSELuc8 cells revealed two classes of compounds causing a greater than two-fold increase in luciferase. In particular, quinolone-like compound 91 (C91) at a non-toxic nanomolar concentration reduced mSIN3b nuclear entry and occupancy at the RE1/NRSE within the Bdnf locus, and restored brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein levels in HD cells. The mRNA levels of other RE1/NRSE-regulated genes were similarly increased while non-REST-regulated genes were unaffected. C91 stimulated REST-regulated gene expression in HTT-knockdown Zebrafish and increased BDNF mRNA in the presence of mutant HTT. Thus, a combination of virtual screening and biological approaches can lead to compounds reducing REST complex formation, which may be useful in HD and in other pathological conditions.