Gustation-Inspired Dual-Responsive Hydrogels for Taste Sensing Enabled by Machine Learning.

Human gustatory system recognizes salty/sour or sweet tastants based on their different ionic or nonionic natures using two different signaling pathways. This suggests that evolution has selected this detection dualism favorably. Analogically, this work constructs herein bioinspired stimulus-responsive hydrogels to recognize model salty/sour or sweet tastes based on two different responses, that is, electrical and volumetric responsivities. Different compositions of zwitter-ionic sulfobetainic N-(3-sulfopropyl)-N-(methacryloxyethyl)-N,N-dimethylammonium betaine (DMAPS) and nonionic 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) are co-polymerized to explore conditions for gelation. The hydrogel responses upon adding model tastant molecules are explored using electrical and visual de-swelling observations. Beyond challenging electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements, naive multimeter electrical characterizations are performed, toward facile applicability. Ionic model molecules, for example, sodium chloride and acetic acid, interact electrostatically with DMAPS groups, whereas nonionic molecules, for example, D(-)fructose, interact by hydrogen bonding with HEMA. The model tastants induce complex combinations of electrical and volumetric responses, which are then introduced as inputs for machine learning algorithms. The fidelity of such a trained dual response approach is tested for a more general taste identification. This work envisages that the facile dual electric/volumetric hydrogel responses combined with machine learning proposes a generic bioinspired avenue for future bionic designs of artificial taste recognition, amply needed in applications.

Controlling the Nematic Liquid Crystallinity of Cellulose Nanocrystals with an Alcohol Ethoxy Sulfonate Surfactant.

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are biobased colloidal nanorods that have unlocked new opportunities in the area of sustainable functional nanomaterials including structural films and coatings, biomedical devices, energy, sensing, and composite materials. While selective light reflection and sensing develop from the typical chiral nematic (cholesteric, Nem*) liquid crystallinity exhibited by CNCs, a wealth of technologies would benefit from a nematic liquid crystal (LC) with CNC uniaxial alignment. Therefore, this study answers the central question of whether surfactant complexation suppresses CNC chirality in favor of nematic lyotropic and thermotropic liquid crystallinity. Therein, we use a common surfactant having both nonionic and anionic blocks, namely, oligo(ethylene glycol) alkyl-3-sulfopropyl diether potassium salt (an alcohol ethoxy sulfonate (AES)). AES forms complexes with CNCs in toluene (a representative for nonpolar organic solvent) via hydrogen bonding with an AES' oligo(ethylene glycol) block. A sufficiently high AES weight fraction endows the dispersibility of CNC in toluene. Lyotropic liquid crystallinity with Schlieren textures containing two- and four-point brush defects is observed in polarized optical microscopy (POM), along with the suppression of the cholesteric fingerprint textures. The results suggest a nematic (Nem) phase in toluene. Moreover, thermotropic liquid crystallinity is observed by incorporating an excess of AES, in the absence of an additional solvent and upon mild heating. The Schlieren textures suggest a nematic system that undergoes uniaxial alignment under mild shear. Importantly, replacing AES with a corresponding nonionic surfactant does not lead to liquid crystalline properties, suggesting electrostatic structural control of the charged end group of AES. Overall, we introduce a new avenue to suppress CNC chirality to achieve nematic structures, which resolves the long-sought uniaxial alignment of CNCs in filaments, composite materials, and optical devices.

From Precision Colloidal Hybrid Materials to Advanced Functional Assemblies.

The concept of colloids encompasses a wide range of isotropic and anisotropic particles with diverse sizes, shapes, and functions from synthetic nanoparticles, nanorods, and nanosheets to functional biological units. They are addressed in materials science for various functions, while they are ubiquitous in the biological world for multiple functions. A large variety of synthetic colloids have been researched due to their scientific and technological importance; still they characteristically suffer from finite size distributions, imperfect shapes and interactions, and not fully engineered functions. This contrasts with biological colloids that offer precision in their size, shape, and functionality. Materials science has searched for inspiration from the biological world to allow structural control by self-assembly and hierarchy and to identify novel routes for combinations of functions in bio-inspiration.Herein, we first discuss different approaches for highly defined structural control of technically relevant synthetic colloids based on guided assemblies of biological motifs. First, we describe how polydisperse nanoparticles can be assembled within hollow protein cages to allow well-defined assemblies and hierarchical packings. Another approach relies on DNA nanotechnology-based assemblies, where engineered DNA structures allow programmed assembly. Then we will discuss synthetic colloids that have either particularly narrow size dispersity or even atomically precise structures for new assemblies and potential functions. Such colloids can have well-defined packings for membranes allowing high modulus. They can be switchable using light-responsive moieties, and they can initiate packing of larger assemblies of different geometrical shapes. The emphasis is on atomically defined nanoclusters that allow well-defined assemblies by supramolecular interactions, such as directional hydrogen bonding. Finally, we will discuss stimulus-responsive colloids for new functions, even toward complex responsive functions inspired by life. Therein, stimulus-responsive materials inspired by biological learning could allow the next generation of such materials. Classical conditioning is among the simplest biological learning concepts, requiring two stimuli and triggerable memory. Therein we use thermoresponsive hydrogels with plasmonic gold nanoparticles and a spiropyran photoacid as a model. Heating is the unconditioned stimulus leading to melting of the thermoresponsive gel, whereas light (at a specified wavelength) originally leads to reduced pH without plasmonic or structural changes because of steric gel stabilization. Under heat-induced gel melting, light results in pH-decrease and chain-like aggregation of the gold nanoparticles, allowing a new plasmonic response. Thus, simultaneous heating and light irradiation allow conditioning for a newly derived stimulus, where the logic diagram is analogous to Pavlovian conditioning. The shown assemblies demonstrate the different functionalities achievable using colloids when the sizes and the dispersity are controlled.

Stereochemistry-dependent thermotropic liquid crystalline phases of monosaccharide-based amphiphiles.

Conformational rigidity controls the bulk self-assembly and liquid crystallinity from amphiphilic block molecules to copolymers. The effects of block stereochemistry on the self-assembly have, however, been less explored. Here, we have investigated amphiphilic block molecules involving eight open-chain monosaccharide-based polyol units possessing different stereochemistries, derived from D-glucose, D-galactose, L-arabinose, D-mannose and L-rhamnose (allylated monosaccharides t-Glc*, e-Glc*, t-Gal*, e-Gal*, t-Ara*, e-Ara*, t-Man*, and t-Rha*), end-functionalized with repulsive tetradecyl alkyl chain blocks to form well-defined amphiphiles with block molecule structures. All compounds studied showed low temperature crystalline phases due to polyol crystallization, and smectic (lamellar) and isotropic phases upon heating in bulk. Hexagonal cylindrical phase was additionally observed for the composition involving t-Man*. Cubic phases were observed for e-Glc*, e-Gal*, e-Ara*, and t-Rha* derived compounds. Therein, the rich array of WAXS-reflections suggested that the crystalline polyol domains are not ultra-confined in spheres as in classic cubic phases but instead show network-like phase continuity, which is rare in bulk liquid crystals. Importantly, the transition temperatures of the self-assemblies were observed to depend strongly on the polyol stereochemistry. The findings underpin that the stereochemistry in carbohydrate-based assemblies involves complexity, which is an important parameter to be considered in material design when developing self-assemblies for different functions.

pH-Responsive Near-Infrared Emitting Gold Nanoclusters.

Near-infrared (NIR) fluorophores with pH-responsive properties suggest merits in biological analyses. This work establishes a general and effective method to obtain pH-responsive NIR emissive gold nanoclusters by introducing aliphatic tertiary amine (TA) groups into the ligands. Computational study suggests that the pH-responsive NIR emission is associated with electronic structure change upon protonation and deprotonation of TA groups. Photo-induced electron transfer between deprotonated TA groups and the surface Au-S motifs of gold nanoclusters can disrupt the radiative transitions and thereby decrease the photoluminescence intensity in basic environments (pH=7-11). By contrast, protonated TA groups curb the electron transfer and restore the photoluminescence intensity in acidic environments (pH=4-7). The pH-responsive NIR-emitting gold nanoclusters serve as a specific and sensitive probe for the lysosomes in the cells, offering non-invasive emissions without interferences from intracellular autofluorescence.

Strong and Elastic Membranes via Hydrogen Bonding Directed Self-Assembly of Atomically Precise Nanoclusters.

2D nanomaterials have provided an extraordinary palette of mechanical, electrical, optical, and catalytic properties. Ultrathin 2D nanomaterials are classically produced via exfoliation, delamination, deposition, or advanced synthesis methods using a handful of starting materials. Thus, there is a need to explore more generic avenues to expand the feasibility to the next generation 2D materials beyond atomic and molecular-level covalent networks. In this context, self-assembly of atomically precise noble nanoclusters can, in principle, suggest modular approaches for new generation 2D materials, provided that the ligand engineering allows symmetry breaking and directional internanoparticle interactions. Here the self-assembly of silver nanoclusters (NCs) capped with p-mercaptobenzoic acid ligands (Na4 Ag44 -pMBA30 ) into large-area freestanding membranes by trapping the NCs in a transient solvent layer at air-solvent interfaces is demonstrated. The patchy distribution of ligand bundles facilitates symmetry breaking and preferential intralayer hydrogen bondings resulting in strong and elastic membranes. The membranes with Young's modulus of 14.5 ± 0.2 GPa can readily be transferred to different substrates. The assemblies allow detection of Raman active antibiotic molecules with high reproducibility without any need for substrate pretreatment.

Bright and Photostable Fluorescent Metal Nanocluster Supraparticles from Invert Emulsions.

Fluorescent supraparticles of gold, silver and copper nanoclusters are synthesized by simply drying of invert emulsions, resulting in a dozen-fold increase in photoluminescence quantum yield (up to ≈80 %) and a significant improvement in photostability. The inhibition of the ligand twisting during the intramolecular charge transfer is found to be responsible for the enhancement, especially for the gold nanocluster supraparticles. This research provides a general, flexible, and easy method for producing highly luminescent and photostable metal nanocluster-based materials that promise practical applications in white-light-emitting diodes.

Luminescent Gold Nanocluster-Methylcellulose Composite Optical Fibers with Low Attenuation Coefficient and High Photostability.

Because of their lightweight structure, flexibility, and immunity to electromagnetic interference, polymer optical fibers (POFs) are used in numerous short-distance applications. Notably, the incorporation of luminescent nanomaterials in POFs offers optical amplification and sensing for advanced nanophotonics. However, conventional POFs suffer from nonsustainable components and processes. Furthermore, the traditionally used luminescent nanomaterials undergo photobleaching, oxidation, and they can be cytotoxic. Therefore, biopolymer-based optical fibers containing nontoxic luminescent nanomaterials are needed, with efficient and environmentally acceptable extrusion methods. Here, such an approach for fibers wet-spun from aqueous methylcellulose (MC) dispersions under ambient conditions is demonstrated. Further, the addition of either luminescent gold nanoclusters, rod-like cellulose nanocrystals or gold nanocluster-cellulose nanocrystal hybrids into the MC matrix furnishes strong and ductile composite fibers. Using cutback attenuation measurement, it is shown that the resulting fibers can act as short-distance optical fibers with a propagation loss as low as 1.47 dB cm-1 . The optical performance is on par with or even better than some of the previously reported biopolymeric optical fibers. The combination of excellent mechanical properties (Young's modulus and maximum strain values up to 8.4 GPa and 52%, respectively), low attenuation coefficient, and high photostability makes the MC-based composite fibers excellent candidates for multifunctional optical fibers and sensors.

Fast Switching of Bright Whiteness in Channeled Hydrogel Networks.

Beside pigment absorption and reflection by periodic photonic structures, natural species often use light scattering to achieve whiteness. Synthetic hydrogels offer opportunities in stimuli-responsive materials and devices; however, they are not conventionally considered as ideal materials to achieve high whiteness by scattering due to the ill-defined porosities and the low refractive index contrast between the polymer and water. Herein, a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) hydrogel network with percolated empty channels (ch-PNIPAm) is demonstrated to possess switchable bright whiteness upon temperature changes, obtained by removing the physical agarose gel in a semi-interpenetrating network of agarose and PNIPAm. The hydrogel is highly transparent at room temperature and becomes brightly white above 35 °C. Compared to conventional PNIPAm, the ch-PNIPAm hydrogel exhibits 80% higher reflectance at 800 nm and 18 times faster phase transition kinetics. The nanoscopic channels in the ch-PNIPAm facilitate water diffusion upon phase transition, thus enabling the formation of smaller pores and enhanced whiteness in the gel. Furthermore, fast photothermally triggered response down to tens of milliseconds can be achieved. This unique property of the ch-PNIPAm hydrogel to efficiently scatter visible light can be potentially used for, e.g., smart windows, optical switches, and, as demonstrated in this report, thermoresponsive color displays.

UV-Triggered On-Demand Temperature-Responsive Reversible and Irreversible Gelation of Cellulose Nanocrystals.

We show ionically cross-linked, temperature-responsive reversible or irreversible hydrogels of anionic cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and methacrylate terpolymers by mixing them homogeneously in the initially charge-neutral state of the polymer, which was subsequently switched to be cationic by cleaving side groups by UV irradiation. The polymer is a random terpolymer poly(di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)-rnd-poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)-rnd-poly(2-((2-nitrobenzyl)oxycarbonyl)aminoethyl methacrylate), that is, PDEGMA-rnd-POEGMA-rnd-PNBOCAEMA. The PDEGMA and POEGMA repeating units lead to a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) behavior. Initially, homogeneous aqueous mixtures are obtained with CNCs, and no gelation is observed even upon heating to 60 °C. However, upon UV irradiation, the NBOCAEMAs are transformed to cationic 2-aminoethyl methacrylate (AEMA) groups, as 2-nitrobenzaldehyde moieties are cleaved. The resulting mixtures of anionic CNC and cationic PDEGMA-rnd-POEGMA-rnd-PAEMA show gelation for sufficiently high polymer fractions upon heating to 60 °C due to the interplay of ionic interactions and LCST. For short heating times, the gelation is thermoreversible, whereas for long enough heating times, irreversible gels can be obtained, indicating importance of kinetic aspects. The ionic nature of the cross-linking is directly shown by adding NaCl, which leads to gel melting. In conclusion, the optical triggering of the polymer ionic interactions in combination with its LCST phase behavior allows a new way for ionic nanocellulose hydrogel assemblies.

Best Practice for Reporting Wet Mechanical Properties of Nanocellulose-Based Materials.

Nanocellulose-based materials and nanocomposites show extraordinary mechanical properties with high stiffness, strength, and toughness. Although the last decade has witnessed great progress in understanding the mechanical properties of these materials, a crucial challenge is to identify pathways to introduce high wet strength, which is a critical parameter for commercial applications. Because of the waterborne fabrication methods, nanocellulose-based materials are prone to swelling by both adsorption of moist air or liquid water. Unfortunately, there is currently no best practice on how to take the swelling into account when reporting mechanical properties at different relative humidity or when measuring the mechanical properties of fully hydrated materials. This limits and in parts fully prevents comparisons between different studies. We review current approaches and propose a best practice for measuring and reporting mechanical properties of wet nanocellulose-based materials, highlighting the importance of swelling and the correlation between mechanical properties and volume expansion.

Tunable and Magnetic Thiol-ene Micropillar Arrays.

Tunable and responsive surfaces offer routes to multiple functionalities ranging from superhydrophobic surfaces to controlled adhesion. Inspired by cilia structure in the respiratory pathway, magnetically responsive periodic arrays of flexible and magnetic thiol-ene micropillars are fabricated. Omnidirectional collective bending of the pillar array in magnetic field is shown. Local non-contact actuation of a single pillar is achieved using an electromagnetic needle to probe the responsiveness and the elastic properties of the pillars by comparing the effect of thiol-ene crosslinking density to pillar bending. The suitable thiol-ene components for flexible and stiff magnetic micropillars and the workable range of thiol-to-allyl ratio are identified. The wettability of the magnetic pillars can be tailored by chemical and topography modification of the pillar surface. Low-surface-energy self-assembled monolayers are grafted by UV-assisted surface activation, which is also used for surface topography modification by covalent bonding of micro- and nanoparticles to the pillar surface. The modified thiol-ene micopillars are resistant to capillarity-driven collapse and they exhibit low contact angle hysteresis, allowing water droplet motion driven by repeated bending and recovery of the magnetic pillars in an external magnetic field. Transport of polyethylene microspheres is also demonstrated.

Marcromolecular Architecture and Encapsulation of the Anticancer Drug Everolimus Control the Self-Assembly of Amphiphilic Polypeptide-Containing Hybrids.

Macromolecular architecture plays an important role in the self-assembly process of block copolymer amphiphiles. Herein, two series of stimuli-responsive amphiphilic 3-miktoarm star hybrid terpolypeptides and their corresponding linear analogues were synthesized exhibiting the same overall composition and molecular weight but different macromolecular architecture. The macromolecular architecture was found to be a key parameter in defining the morphology of the nanostructures formed in aqueous solutions as well as to alter the self-assembly behavior of the polymers independently of their composition. In addition, it was found that the assemblies prepared from the star-shaped polymers showed superior tolerance against enzymatic degradation due to the increased corona block density on the outer surface of the nanoparticles. Encapsulation of the hydrophobic anticancer drug Everolimus resulted in the formation of intriguing non-spherical and non-symmetric pH-responsive nanostructures, such as "stomatocytes" and "multi-compartmentalized suprapolymersomes", while the pH-triggered release of the drug was also investigated. Owing to the similarities of the developed "stomatocytes" with red blood cells, in combination with their pH-responsiveness and superior stability over enzymatic degradation, they are expected to present advanced drug delivery properties and have the ability to bypass several extra- and intracellular barriers to reach and effectively treat cancer cells.

Polymer Nanowires with Highly Precise Internal Morphology and Topography.

The construction of precise soft matter nanostructures in solution presents a challenge. A key focus remains on the rational design of functionalities to achieve the high morphological complexity typically found in biological systems. Advances in controlled polymerizations and self-assembly increasingly allow approaches toward complex hierarchical nanomaterials. By combining tailor-made cylindrical polymer brushes, block copolymers and interpolyelectrolyte complexation-driven self-assembly, we demonstrate a facile construction of uniformly compartmentalized and topographically structured polymeric nanowires in aqueous media. The approach offers a modular avenue in programming the internal morphology of polymer nanowires by varying the block copolymer composition and topology.

Inverse Thermoreversible Mechanical Stiffening and Birefringence in a Methylcellulose/Cellulose Nanocrystal Hydrogel.

We show that composite hydrogels comprising methyl cellulose (MC) and cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) colloidal rods display a reversible and enhanced rheological storage modulus and optical birefringence upon heating, i.e., inverse thermoreversibility. Dynamic rheology, quantitative polarized optical microscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), circular dichroism (CD), and scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) were used for characterization. The concentration of CNCs in aqueous media was varied up to 3.5 wt % (i.e, keeping the concentration below the critical aq concentration) while maintaining the MC aq concentration at 1.0 wt %. At 20 °C, MC/CNC underwent gelation upon passing the CNC concentration of 1.5 wt %. At this point, the storage modulus ( G') reached a plateau, and the birefringence underwent a stepwise increase, thus suggesting a percolative phenomenon. The storage modulus ( G') of the composite gels was an order of magnitude higher at 60 °C compared to that at 20 °C. ITC results suggested that, at 60 °C, the CNC rods were entropically driven to interact with MC chains, which according to recent studies collapse at this temperature into ring-like, colloidal-scale persistent fibrils with hollow cross-sections. Consequently, the tendency of the MC to form more persistent aggregates promotes the interactions between the CNC chiral aggregates towards enhanced storage modulus and birefringence. At room temperature, ITC shows enthalpic binding between CNCs and MC with the latter comprising aqueous, molecularly dispersed polymer chains that lead to looser and less birefringent material. TEM, SEM, and CD indicate CNC chiral fragments within a MC/CNC composite gel. Thus, MC/CNC hybrid networks offer materials with tunable rheological properties and access to liquid crystalline properties at low CNC concentrations.

Photoantimicrobial Biohybrids by Supramolecular Immobilization of Cationic Phthalocyanines onto Cellulose Nanocrystals.

The development of photoactive and biocompatible nanostructures is a highly desirable goal to address the current threat of antibiotic resistance. Here, we describe a novel supramolecular biohybrid nanostructure based on the non-covalent immobilization of cationic zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) derivatives onto unmodified cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), following an easy and straightforward protocol, in which binding is driven by electrostatic interactions. These non-covalent biohybrids show strong photodynamic activity against S. aureus and E. coli, representative examples of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, respectively, and C. albicans, a representative opportunistic fungal pathogen, outperforming the free ZnPc counterparts and related nanosystems in which the photosensitizer is covalently linked to the CNC surface.

Interfacial Polyelectrolyte Complex Spinning of Cellulose Nanofibrils for Advanced Bicomponent Fibers.

Fiber spinning of anionic TEMPO-oxidized cellulose (TOCN) nanofibrils with polycations by interfacial polyelectrolyte complexation is demonstrated. The formed fibers were mostly composed of cellulose nanofibrils and the polycations were a minor constituent, leading to yield and ultimate strengths of ca. 100 MPa and ca. 200 MPa, and Young's modulus of ca. 15 GPa. Stretching of the as-formed wet filaments of TOCN/polycation by 20% increased the Young's modulus, yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength by approximately 45, 36, and 26%, respectively. Importantly, feasibility of compartmentalized wound bicomponent fibers by simultaneous spinning of two fibers of different compositions and entwining them together was shown. This possibility was further exploited to demonstrate reversible shape change of a bicomponent fiber directly by humidity change, and indirectly by temperature changes based on thermally dependent humidity absorption. The demonstrated route for TOCN-based fiber preparation is expected to open up new avenues in the application of nanocelluloses in advanced fibrous materials, crimping, and responsive smart textiles.

Reversible Supracolloidal Self-Assembly of Cobalt Nanoparticles to Hollow Capsids and Their Superstructures.

The synthesis and spontaneous, reversible supracolloidal hydrogen bond-driven self-assembly of cobalt nanoparticles (CoNPs) into hollow shell-like capsids and their directed assembly to higher order superstructures is presented. CoNPs and capsids form in one step upon mixing dicobalt octacarbonyl (Co2 CO8 ) and p-aminobenzoic acid (pABA) in 1,2-dichlorobenzene using heating-up synthesis without additional catalysts or stabilizers. This leads to pABA capped CoNPs (core ca. 5 nm) with a narrow size distribution. They spontaneously assemble into tunable spherical capsids (d≈50-200 nm) with a few-layered shells, as driven by inter-nanoparticle hydrogen bonds thus warranting supracolloidal self-assembly. The capsids can be reversibly disassembled and reassembled by controlling the hydrogen bonds upon heating or solvent exchanges. The superparamagnetic nature of CoNPs allows magnetic-field-directed self-assembly of capsids to capsid chains due to an interplay of induced dipoles and inter-capsid hydrogen bonds. Finally, self-assembly on air-water interface furnishes lightweight colloidal framework films.

Hydrogen bonding asymmetric star-shape derivative of bile acid leads to supramolecular fibrillar aggregates that wrap into micrometer spheres.

We report that star-shaped molecules with cholic acid cores asymmetrically grafted by low molecular weight polymers with hydrogen bonding end-groups undergo aggregation to nanofibers, which subsequently wrap into micrometer spherical aggregates with low density cores. Therein the facially amphiphilic cholic acid (CA) is functionalized by four flexible allyl glycidyl ether (AGE) side chains, which are terminated with hydrogen bonding 2-ureido-4[1H]pyrimidinone (UPy) end-groups as connected by hexyl spacers, denoted as CA(AGE6-C6H12-UPy)4. This wedge-shaped molecule is expected to allow the formation of a rich variety of solvent-dependent structures due to the complex interplay of interactions, enabled by its polar/nonpolar surface-active structure, the hydrophobicity of the CA in aqueous medium, and the possibility to control hydrogen bonding between UPy molecules by solvent selection. In DMSO, the surfactant-like CA(AGE6-C6H12-UPy)4 self-assembles into nanometer scale micelles, as expected due to its nonpolar CA apexes, solubilized AGE6-C6H12-UPy chains, and suppressed mutual hydrogen bonds between the UPys. Dialysis in water leads to nanofibers with lateral dimensions of 20-50 nm. This is explained by promoted aggregation as the hydrogen bonds between UPy molecules start to become activated, the reduced solvent dispersibility of the AGE-chains, and the hydrophobicity of CA. Finally, in pure water the nanofibers wrap into micrometer spheres having low density cores. In this case, strong complementary hydrogen bonds between UPy molecules of different molecules can form, thus promoting lateral interactions between the nanofibers, as allowed by the hydrophobic hexyl spacers. The wrapping is illustrated by transmission electron microscopy tomographic 3D reconstructions. More generally, we foresee hierarchically structured matter bridging the length scales from molecular to micrometer scale by sequentially triggering supramolecular interactions.

Template-Free Supracolloidal Self-Assembly of Atomically Precise Gold Nanoclusters: From 2D Colloidal Crystals to Spherical Capsids.

We report supracolloidal self-assembly of atomically precise and strictly monodisperse gold nanoclusters involving p-mercaptobenzoic acid ligands (Au102 -pMBA44 ) under aqueous conditions into hexagonally packed monolayer-thick two-dimensional facetted colloidal crystals (thickness 2.7 nm) and their bending to closed shells leading to spherical capsids (d ca. 200 nm), as controlled by solvent conditions. The 2D colloidal assembly is driven in template-free manner by the spontaneous patchiness of the pMBA ligands around the Au102 -pMBA44 nanoclusters preferably towards equatorial plane, thus promoting inter-nanocluster hydrogen bonds and high packing to planar sheets. More generally, the findings encourage to explore atomically precise nanoclusters towards highly controlled colloidal self-assemblies.