Relinquishing control? Supervisor co-regulation may disrupt students' self-regulated learning during simulation-based training.

When uncertain, medical trainees often seek to co-regulate their learning with supervisors and peers. Evidence suggests they may enact self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies differently when engaged in self- versus co-regulated learning (Co-RL). We compared the impacts of SRL and Co-RL on trainees' acquisition, retention, and preparation for future learning (PFL) of cardiac auscultation skills during simulation-based training. In our two-arm, prospective, non-inferiority trial, we randomly assigned first- and second-year medical students to the SRL (N = 16) or Co-RL conditions (N = 16). Across two learning sessions separated by two-weeks, participants practiced and were assessed in diagnosing simulated cardiac murmurs. We examined diagnostic accuracy and learning trace data across sessions, and conducted semi-structured interviews to explore participants' understandings of their underlying choices and learning strategies. SRL participants' outcomes were non-inferior to Co-RL participants on the immediate post-test and retention test, but not on the PFL assessment (i.e., inconclusive). Analyzing interview transcripts (N = 31) generated three themes: perceived utility of initial learning supports for future learning; SRL strategies and sequencing of murmurs; and perceived control over learning across sessions. Co-RL participants regularly described relinquishing control of learning to supervisors and regaining it when on their own. For some trainees, Co-RL seemed to interfere with their situated and future SRL. We posit that transient clinical training sessions, typical in simulation-based and workplace-based settings, may not allow the ideal processes of Co-RL to unfold between supervisor and trainee. Future research must examine how supervisors and trainees can share accountability to develop the shared mental models that underlie effective Co-RL.

Powerful medical education improves health care quality and return on investment.

INTRODUCTION: Powerful medical education (PME) involves the use of new technologies informed by the science of expertise that are embedded in laboratories and organizations that value evidence-based education and support innovation. This contrasts with traditional medical education that relies on a dated apprenticeship model that yields uneven results. PME involves an amalgam of features, conditions and assumptions, and contextual variables that comprise an approach to developing clinical competence grounded in education impact metrics including efficiency and cost-effectiveness. METHODS: This article is a narrative review based on SANRA criteria and informed by realist review principles. The review addresses the PME model with an emphasis on mastery learning and deliberate practice principles drawn from the new science of expertise. Pub Med, Scopus, and Web of Science search terms include medical education, the science of expertise, mastery learning, translational outcomes, cost effectiveness, and return on investment. Literature coverage is comprehensive with selective citations. RESULTS: PME is described as an integrated set of twelve features embedded in a group of seven conditions and assumptions and four context variables. PME is illustrated via case examples that demonstrate improved ventilator patient management learning outcomes compared to traditional clinical education and mastery learning of breaking bad news communication skills. Evidence also shows that PME of physicians and other health care providers can have translational, downstream effects on patient care practices, patient outcomes, and return on investment. Several translational health care quality improvements that derive from PME include reduced infections; better communication among physicians, patients, and families; exceptional birth outcomes; more effective patient education; and return on investment. CONCLUSIONS: The article concludes with challenges to hospitals, health systems, and medical education organizations that are responsible for producing physicians who are expected to deliver safe, effective, and cost-conscious health care.

Beyond the M.D.: Transdisciplinary approaches of high-volume dual degree M.D./Masters programs at U.S. allopathic medical schools.

PURPOSE: Transdisciplinarity has been described as a fusion of theories, methods, and expertise across disciplinary boundaries to address complex, global problems. This approach has coincided with an increase in US medical schools offering masters degrees along with an MD degree to equip medical students to practice in complex, interconnected health systems. This study focused on medical schools that graduate the most dual degree students per year and explored the alignment of such programs with a transdisciplinary approach. METHODS: We identified 19 allopathic medical schools that annually graduated an average of 10 or more dual-degree students from 2015-2020. We surveyed these schools and asked participants to describe the reason(s) their institutions offered dual-degree programs. Two authors coded the narrative responses from the survey. RESULTS: Responses were received from 17 of the 19 schools. The analysis of participants' responses regarding their institutions' purpose for offering dual programs revealed several themes associated with a transdisciplinary approach to training. The most common themes were expand skill sets beyond a medical degree (73%), provide opportunity for interdisciplinary collaboration (67%), expand career interest and goals (60%), develop leaders (53%), enhance residency applications (47%) and further the institution's vision and mission (45%). CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first comprehensive evaluation of MD/Masters programs in the United States that includes a summary of the medical schools with the largest dual degree programs and their reasons for offering them. The findings support the hypothesis that allopathic medical schools recognize the need for a transdisciplinary approach to prepare students for the complexities in healthcare. These programs provide students with opportunities for additional areas of expertise, leadership development, enhancement of competitiveness for residency application, and interdisciplinary collaboration. Medical schools without dual-degree programs may consider developing these programs to provide benefits to students and institutions.

Exploration of students' reaction in medical error events and the impact of personalized training on the speaking-up behavior in medical error events.

BACKGROUND: The ability of medical students to speak up before a medical error occurs is a timely and necessary interaction to prevent potential patient harm. As it may be crucial to improve patient safety, we explored how medical students react to a medical error and provided them appropriate training regarding speaking up about medical issues. METHODS: A quasi-experimental study was conducted in Taiwan involving 153 medical students who participated in a speaking-up simulation course. They were divided into two groups. The first group participated in a non-life-threatening scenario before the intervention, followed by a personalized debriefing session, then a life-threatening scenario after the intervention. The second group participated in a life-threatening scenario before the intervention, followed by a personalized debriefing session, then a non-life-threatening scenario after the intervention. Students also completed patient safety attitude survey. RESULTS: During the preintervention scenario, the overall medical students' speaking-up rate to medical error was 45.1%. The speaking-up rate of medical students in life-threatening scenario was significantly higher than the rate in non-life-threatening scenario before the intervention (64.6% vs 24.3%, p < 0.001). After personalized debriefing, the speaking-up rate to medical errors was significantly improved both in life-threatening scenarios (95.9%, p < 0.001) and in non-life-threatening scenarios (100%, p < 0.001). Male medical students had significantly higher speaking-up rates than female students in life-threatening scenario (76.2% vs 51.4%, p = 0.02). On post-intervention surveys, students provided several reasons for their likelihood of speaking up or remaining silent during a medical error event. CONCLUSIONS: Medical students' rate of speaking-up to medical error was higher in a simulated life-threatening scenario than in a simulated non-life-threatening scenario. Faculty-led personalized debriefing can facilitate medical students' adoption of communication strategies to speak up more in medical error events. Educators should also consider gender differences when they design effective assertive communication courses.[Box: see text].

Effects of Prebriefing Using Online Team-Based Learning in Advanced Life Support Education for Nurses.

An effective prebriefing strategy is needed that can improve the learning outcomes of nurses in advanced life support education. This study aimed to identify the effects of prebriefing with online team-based learning on hospital nurses' knowledge, performance, and self-efficacy in advanced life support education. A nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design was adopted. Nurses in the experimental group (n = 26) participated in prebriefing using online team-based learning followed by self-directed learning, whereas nurses in the control group (n = 27) experienced only self-directed learning before advanced life support education. Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests were used to identify the posttest-pretest differences of the study variables in each group. Both groups showed improved knowledge, individual performance, and self-efficacy after the education. Nurses in the experimental group reported higher self-efficacy scores compared with those in the control group. There were no differences between the experimental and control groups in knowledge, individual performances, or team performance. Online team-based learning as a prebriefing modality resulted in greater improvements in self-efficacy in advanced life support education.

Factors associated with medical students speaking-up about medical errors: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Training medical students to speak up when they witness a potential error is an important competency for patient safety, but details regarding the barriers that prevent medical students from effectively communicating are lacking. Therefore, this study aimed at exploring the factors affecting medical students' willingness to speak up for patient safety when a medical error was observed. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study at a medical university in Taiwan, and 151 medical students in clinical clerkship completed a survey including demographic characteristics, conflict of interests/social relationship, personal capability, and personality and characteristics of senior staff domains. Data were analyzed using t-test. RESULTS: Three of five items in the conflict of interests/social relationship domain showed statistically significant importance, including 'I am afraid of being punished' (Mean difference, MD = 0.37; p < 0.01), 'I do not want to break unspoken rules' (MD = 0.55; p < 0.01), and 'I do not want to have bad team relationship' (MD = 0.58; p < 0.01). Two items (perception of knowledge/understanding and communication skills) in the personal capability domain were significantly important to speaking up. Six of 10 items in personality and characteristics of senior staff domain were rated significantly important in deciding to speak up. The top three factors of them were senior personnel with 'Grumpy' personality (MD = 1.20; p < 0.01), 'hierarchy gap' (MD = 1.12; p < 0.01), and senior personnel with 'Stubborn' personality (MD = 1.06; p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrated medical students' perspectives on barriers to speaking up in the event of medical error. Some factors related to characteristics of senior staff could compromise medical students' ability to speak up in the event of medical error. These results might be important for medical educators in designing personalized educational activities related to medical students' ability to speak up for patient safety.

Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies among firefighters/paramedics of a US fire department: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: We estimate the point seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in the frontline firefighter/paramedic workforce of a South Florida fire department located in the epicentre of a State outbreak. METHODS: A cross-sectional study design was used to estimate the point seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies using a rapid immunoglobulin (Ig)M-IgG combined point-of-care lateral flow immunoassay among frontline firefighters/paramedics collected over a 2-day period, 16-17 April 2020. Fire department personnel were emailed a survey link assessing COVID-19 symptoms and work exposures the day prior to the scheduled drive-through antibody testing at a designated fire station. Off-duty and on-duty firefighter/paramedic personnel drove through the fire station/training facility in their personal vehicles or on-duty engine/rescue trucks for SARS-CoV-2 antibody testing. RESULTS: Among the 203 firefighters/paramedics that make up the fire department workforce, 18 firefighters/paramedics (8.9%) tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, of which 8 firefighters/paramedics (3.9%) were IgG positive only, 8 (3.9%) were IgM positive only and 2 (0.1%) were IgG/IgM positive. The positive predictive value (PPV) of the serological test is estimated to be 33.2% and the negative predictive value is 99.3%. The average number of COVID-19 case contacts (ie, within 6 feet of an infected person (laboratory-confirmed or probable COVID-19 patient) for ≥15 min) experienced by firefighters/paramedics was higher for those with positive serology compared with those with negative (13.3 cases vs 7.31 cases; p=0.022). None of the antibody positive firefighters/paramedics reported receipt of the annual influenza vaccine compared with firefighters/paramedics who tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (0.0% vs 21.0%; p=0.027). CONCLUSION: Rapid SARS-CoV-2 IgM-IgG antibody testing documented early-stage and late-stage infection in a firefighter workforce providing insight to a broader medical surveillance project on return to work for firefighters/paramedics. Given the relatively low PPV of the serological test used in this study back in April 2020, caution should be used in interpreting test results.

Effects of an integrated simulation-based resuscitation skills training with clinical practicum on mastery learning and self-efficacy in nursing students.

BACKGROUND: This study evaluates the effectiveness of integrated simulation-based resuscitation skills training combined with a clinical practicum by assessing nursing students' knowledge, psychomotor skills, and self-efficacy. METHODS: In a pretest-posttest design, 255 second-year nursing students participated in an emergency nursing clinical course consisting of a two-hour simulation-based resuscitation skills training component along with an 80-hour clinical placement in an emergency department. Knowledge, self-efficacy, and psychomotor skill errors were measured. Analyses of pre- and post-test data were performed on three subgroups: the simulation-only group, the simulation with clinical observation group, and the simulation with clinical performance group. Stu- dents were divided into these groups based on resuscitation experiences during their clinical practicum in the emergency department. RESULTS: Mean scores of knowledge (z = -13.879, p < .001) and self-efficacy (z = -10.969, p < .001) significantly improved after the clinical practicum compared to baseline. Knowl- edge (F = .502, p = .606), psychomotor skill error (F = 1.587, p = .207), and self-efficacy (F = .481, p = .619) did not significantly differ among the three subgroups after controlling for two covari- ates (age, Basic Life Support certification) in the analysis of covariance models. CONCLUSION: Integrated simulation-based resuscitation skills training combined with a clinical practicum might be beneficial for enhancing mastery learning and self-efficacy in nursing students through learner engagement and feedback.

Association of cardiopulmonary resuscitation psychomotor skills with knowledge and self-efficacy in nursing students.

Effective cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) skills are essential for better patient survival, but whether these skills are associated with knowledge of and self-efficacy in CPR is not well known. The purpose of this study was to assess the quality of CPR skills and identify the association of the psychomotor skills with knowledge and self-efficacy at the time of CPR skills training. A convenience sample of 124 nursing students participated in a one-group posttest-only study. The quality of CPR psychomotor skills, as assessed by structured observation using a manikin, was suboptimal. Nursing students who performed correct chest compression skills reported higher self-efficacy, but there was no association between CPR psychomotor skills and total knowledge. Rigorous skills training sessions with more objective feedback on performance and individual coaching are warranted to enable mastery learning and self-efficacy.

The attitudes of graduate healthcare students toward older adults, personal aging, health care reform, and interprofessional collaboration.

Healthcare reform has led to an increased emphasis on interprofessional healthcare models for older adults. Unfortunately, best practice education that focuses on the interprofessional healthcare of the elderly does not yet exist. As a prelude to implementing interprofessional geriatric educational initiatives, we developed a survey to identify potential attitudinal differences among graduate healthcare students regarding personal aging, caring for older adults, healthcare reform and the role of the physician on the interprofessional team. We surveyed third-year medical students, nurse practitioner students and graduate social work students. Attitudes regarding personal aging were similar among the professions. Nurse practitioner and social work students had higher positive attitudes toward the care of older adults. Concerns about the impact of healthcare reform on quality and healthcare costs differed significantly. There was also a significant difference in attitudes concerning the role of the physician as the leader of the interprofessional team. These results provide insights into gerontologic-focused attitudes of graduate healthcare professional students. In an era of dramatic healthcare change, these findings will assist educators in the development and implementation of educational programs to prepare graduate students for the interprofessional care of elderly patients.

Divergence in student and educator conceptual structures during auscultation training.

CONTEXT: Simulation-based medical education allows trainees to engage in self-regulated learning (SRL), yet research aimed at elucidating the mechanisms of SRL in this context is relatively absent. We compared 'unguided' SRL with 'directed' SRL (DSRL), wherein learners followed an expert-designed booklet. METHODS: Year 1 medical students (n = 37) were randomly assigned to practise identifying seven cardiac murmurs using a simulator and video only (SRL group) or a simulator and video plus the booklet (DSRL group). All participants completed a 22-item test 3 weeks later. To compare interventions, we analysed students' diagnostic accuracy. As a novel source of evidence, we documented how participants autonomously sequenced the seven murmurs during initial and delayed practice sessions. In addition, we surveyed clinical educators (n = 17) to find out how they would sequence their teaching of these murmurs. RESULTS: The DSRL group used 50% more training time than the SRL group (p < 0.001). The groups' diagnostic accuracy, however, did not differ significantly on the post-test, retention test or transfer test items (p > 0.12). Despite practising with the expert-defined 'timing-based' approach to murmur diagnosis (i.e. systolic versus diastolic), 84% of DSRL participants implemented a location-based approach (i.e. practising aortic murmurs separately from mitral murmurs) during a second, unguided practice session. Notably, most SRL participants used that same approach spontaneously. By contrast, clinical educators were split in their use of the timing-based (n = 10) and the location-based (n = 6) approaches. Chi-squared analyses suggested educators' conceptions for organising murmurs differed significantly from students' conceptions. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to our predictions, directing students' SRL produced no additional benefit and increased their practice time. Our findings suggest one potential source of these results was a divergence between student and educator conceptions for structuring the practice of cardiac auscultation skills. This phenomenon has not been well articulated in the medical education literature, and may have important implications in many (especially technology-mediated) educational contexts.

Simulation in healthcare education: a best evidence practical guide. AMEE Guide No. 82.

Over the past two decades, there has been an exponential and enthusiastic adoption of simulation in healthcare education internationally. Medicine has learned much from professions that have established programs in simulation for training, such as aviation, the military and space exploration. Increased demands on training hours, limited patient encounters, and a focus on patient safety have led to a new paradigm of education in healthcare that increasingly involves technology and innovative ways to provide a standardized curriculum. A robust body of literature is growing, seeking to answer the question of how best to use simulation in healthcare education. Building on the groundwork of the Best Evidence in Medical Education (BEME) Guide on the features of simulators that lead to effective learning, this current Guide provides practical guidance to aid educators in effectively using simulation for training. It is a selective review to describe best practices and illustrative case studies. This Guide is the second part of a two-part AMEE Guide on simulation in healthcare education. The first Guide focuses on building a simulation program, and discusses more operational topics such as types of simulators, simulation center structure and set-up, fidelity management, and scenario engineering, as well as faculty preparation. This Guide will focus on the educational principles that lead to effective learning, and include topics such as feedback and debriefing, deliberate practice, and curriculum integration - all central to simulation efficacy. The important subjects of mastery learning, range of difficulty, capturing clinical variation, and individualized learning are also examined. Finally, we discuss approaches to team training and suggest future directions. Each section follows a framework of background and definition, its importance to effective use of simulation, practical points with examples, and challenges generally encountered. Simulation-based healthcare education has great potential for use throughout the healthcare education continuum, from undergraduate to continuing education. It can also be used to train a variety of healthcare providers in different disciplines from novices to experts. This Guide aims to equip healthcare educators with the tools to use this learning modality to its full capability.

A survey of nurses' perceived competence and educational needs in performing resuscitation.

BACKGROUND: Effective training is needed for high-quality performance of staff nurses, who are often the first responders in initiating resuscitation. There is insufficient evidence to identify specific educational strategies that improve outcomes, including early recognition and rescue of the critical patient. This study was conducted to identify perceived competence and educational needs as well as to examine factors influencing perceived competence in resuscitation among staff nurses to build a resuscitation training curriculum. METHODS: A convenience sample of 502 staff nurses was recruited from 11 hospitals in a single city. Staff nurses were asked to complete a self-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: On a five-point scale, chest compression was the lowest-rated technical skill (M = 3.33, SD = 0.80), whereas staying calm and focusing on required tasks was the lowest-rated non-technical skill (M = 3.30, SD = 0.80). Work duration, the usefulness of simulation, recent code experience, and recent simulation-based training were significant factors in perceived competence, F(4, 496) = 45.94, p < .001. Simulation-based resuscitation training was the most preferred training modality, and cardiac arrest was the most preferred training topic. CONCLUSION: Based on this needs assessment, a simulation-based resuscitation training curriculum with cardiac arrest scenarios is suggested to improve the resuscitation skills of staff nurses.

Factors Affecting Nursing Students' Reflective Thinking During Simulation Debriefing.

BACKGROUND: Although reflective thinking is regarded as an important learning aspect of debriefing, the factors that can affect reflective thinking during simulation debriefing remain unclear. PURPOSE: This study aimed to identify factors affecting reflective thinking during simulation debriefing among nursing students. METHODS: This study used a cross-sectional descriptive survey design with a convenience sample of 198 Korean nursing students. Participants completed a structured web-based self-administered questionnaire regarding the reflective learning continuum, psychological safety, learner communications skills, and debriefing process design. Multiple regression analyses were used to identify the factors affecting reflective thinking. RESULTS: Significant factors were debriefing process design, learner communication skills, student-to-student interactions, and instructor-to-student interactions. Psychological safety did not affect the reflective thinking of nursing students. CONCLUSIONS: Nurse educators should design and implement strategies to maintain effective debriefing processes, improve communication skills, and facilitate student-to-student and instructor-to-student interactions to promote reflective thinking during simulation debriefing.

Gender Differences in Psychological Safety, Academic Safety, Cognitive Load, and Debriefing Satisfaction in Simulation-Based Learning.

BACKGROUND: As there is an increasing trend in the number of male-identifying learners in undergraduate nursing education, a need exists to identify the gender differences in learners' perceptions regarding simulation-based learning. PURPOSE: This study aimed to identify the gender differences in psychological safety, academic safety, cognitive load, and debriefing satisfaction in simulation-based nursing education. METHODS: A cross-sectional descriptive survey was implemented with 97 female and 95 male nursing students. Data were analyzed using Mann-Whitney U tests or independent-samples t tests. RESULTS: Female nursing students reported a lower academic safety and higher intrinsic load than male nursing students. Male nursing students perceived a higher germane load than female nursing students. CONCLUSIONS: The significance of the present study was the identification of gender differences in participant perception of the simulation learning experience for effective simulation design.

Effects of peer learning on nursing students' learning outcomes in electrocardiogram education.

BACKGROUND: Nurses should have the ability to interpret electrocardiograms (ECGs) quickly and accurately, but their ECG interpretation skills may be suboptimal. The best evidence for effective teaching methods is lacking. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to compare the effects of peer and self-directed individual learning methods on nursing students' learning flow, interpretation skills, and self-confidence in web-based ECG education. DESIGN: This study employed a nonequivalent control group with a pretest-posttest design. SETTINGS: This study was conducted at two colleges of nursing in the Republic of Korea. PARTICIPANTS: Nursing students were conveniently assigned to either a peer learning group (n = 45) or a self-directed individual learning group (n = 51). METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire was used to measure the nursing students' learning flow and self-confidence in ECG rhythm interpretation. ECG interpretation skills were measured using a web-based interpretation skills test. Data were analyzed using a paired t-test and a two-sample t-test. RESULTS: Nursing students in both groups showed improved learning flow, interpretation skills, and self-confidence after ECG education compared with before learning. However, there were no significant pretest-posttest differences in learning flow, interpretation skills, or self-confidence between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Peer learning was as effective as self-directed individual learning in improving nursing students' learning flow, interpretations skills, and self-confidence in web-based education. Nurse educators should educate nursing students to have optimal ECG interpretation abilities, and web-based peer or individual learning are effective education methods.

Effects of a tiered competence-based simulation educator development program.

AIM: This study aimed to develop and identify the effects of a tiered competence-based simulation educator development program on knowledge, competence and attitudes. BACKGROUND: Competence and educational needs-based training is required to improve nursing simulation educators' learning outcomes. DESIGN: This study used a one-group pretest-posttest design. Methods A convenience sample of 65 nursing simulation educators completed a self-administered questionnaire. Three levels of training programs were implemented: basic, intermediate and advanced courses. The pretest-posttest differences in knowledge, competence and attitude scores were analyzed using the paired t-test. The main variable scores for the three programs were compared using one-way ANOVA and the Scheffé post hoc test. RESULTS: Posttest levels of knowledge, competence and attitudes were higher than the pretest measures. Simulation educators in the basic course reported greater improvements in perceived competence when compared with participants in the intermediate course. CONCLUSIONS: The tiered competence-based simulation educator development program improved nursing simulation educators' knowledge, competence and attitudes across all course levels.

Simulation-based education improves military trainees' skill performance and self-confidence in tourniquet placement: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Tactical Combat Casualty Care (TCCC) is the standard of care for stabilization and treatment of military trauma patients. The Department of Defense has mandated that all service members receive role-based TCCC training and certification. Simulation education can increase procedural skills by providing opportunities for deliberate practice in safe, controlled environments. We developed and evaluated the effectiveness of a simulation-based TCCC training intervention to improve participants' skill performance and self-confidence in tourniquet placement. METHODS: This study was a single-blinded, randomized trial with waitlist controls. Army Reserve Officers Training Corp cadets from a single training battalion comprised the study population. After randomization and baseline assessment of all participants, group A alone received focused, simulation-based TCCC tourniquet application training. Three months later, all participants underwent repeat testing, and after crossover, the waitlist group B received the same intervention. Two months later, all cadets underwent a third/final assessment. The primary outcome was tourniquet placement proficiency assessed by total score achieved on a standardized eight-item skill checklist. A secondary outcome was self-confidence in tourniquet application skill as judged by participants' Likert scale ratings. RESULTS: Forty-three Army Reserve Officers Training Corp cadets completed the study protocol. Participants in both group A (n = 25) and group B (n = 18) demonstrated significantly higher performance from baseline to final assessment at 5 months and 2 months, respectively, following the intervention. Mean total checklist score of the entire study cohort increased significantly from 5.53 (SD = 2.00) at baseline to 7.56 (SD = 1.08) at time 3, a gain of 36.7% ( p < 0.001). Both groups rated their self-confidence in tourniquet placement significantly higher following the training. CONCLUSION: A simulation-based TCCC curriculum resulted in significant, consistent, and sustained improvement in participants' skill proficiency and self-confidence in tourniquet placement. Participants maintained these gains 2 months to 5 months after initial training. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic/care management; Level II.

Cost-effectiveness of a quality improvement project, including simulation-based training, on reducing door-to-needle times in stroke thrombolysis.

BACKGROUND: Rapid revascularisation in acute ischaemic stroke is crucial to reduce its total burden including societal costs. A quality improvement (QI) project that included streamlining the stroke care pathway and simulation-based training was followed by a significant reduction in median door-to-needle time (27 to 13 min) and improved patient outcomes after stroke thrombolysis at our centre. Here, we present a retrospective cost-effectiveness analysis of the QI project. METHODS: Costs for implementing and sustaining QI were assessed using recognised frameworks for economic evaluations. Effectiveness was calculated from previously published outcome measures. Cost-effectiveness was presented as incremental cost-effectiveness ratios including costs per minute door-to-needle time reduction per patient, and costs per averted death in the 13-month post-intervention period. We also estimated incremental cost-effectiveness ratios for a projected 5-year post-intervention period and for varying numbers of patients treated with thrombolysis. Furthermore, we performed a sensitivity analysis including and excluding costs of unpaid time. RESULTS: All costs including fixed costs for implementing the QI project totalled US$44 802, while monthly costs were US$2141. We calculated a mean reduction in door-to-needle time of 13.1 min per patient and 6.36 annual averted deaths. Across different scenarios, the estimated costs per minute reduction in door-to-needle time per patient ranged from US$13 to US$29, and the estimated costs per averted death ranged from US$4679 to US$10 543. CONCLUSIONS: We have shown that a QI project aiming to improve stroke thrombolysis treatment at our centre can be implemented and sustained at a relatively low cost with increasing cost-effectiveness over time. Our work builds on the emerging theory and practice for economic evaluations in QI projects and simulation-based training. The presented cost-effectiveness data might help guide healthcare leaders planning similar interventions.