Urinary cotinine levels and environmental tobacco smoke in mothers and children of Romania, Portugal and Poland within the European human biomonitoring pilot study.

The aim of this study was to explore data from the DEMOCOPHES study population for Romania, Portugal and Poland, in order to assess smoking patterns and the extent of ETS exposure and compare the national study samples with reference to the respective anti-smoking laws. The subset of the DEMOCOPHES study sample consisted of 360 children and their mothers (120 in each of the three countries - Romania (RO), Portugal (PT) and Poland (PL). Smoking was assessed using a detailed questionnaire for the participants, which addresses both active and passive smoking. This assessment uses exposure-relevant questionnaire data, in particular on the home environment and residence, socio-demographic characteristics, lifestyle such as nutrition, smoking behavior, other exposure-relevant behavior and occupational history, as well as urinary cotinine and creatinine measurements. We performed general statistical analysis and innovative receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses. Smoking prevalence as evaluated by the questionnaire was generally high, and higher than official statistics, which suggests some under-reporting in the countries, particularly in Romania. Urinary cotinine levels provided biochemical confirmation of the high and similar smoking prevalence for the three countries. Concerning ETS exposure, Romania presented significantly higher levels, for children as well as for non-smoking mothers, with Portugal showing significantly lower levels. Compared to non-smoking mothers, the children showed relatively higher ETS exposure levels in all three countries. The established country-specific optimal cut-off values in urinary cotinine to distinguish smokers from non-smokers vary more than those to discriminate ETS exposure extent in non-smoking mothers and children. Although different between countries, these values are a valuable output to monitor effectiveness of both national antismoking laws and educational programs in the three countries. The findings of this study point to the urgent need for stronger, more effective and well enforced smoke-free legislation in the three countries.

Exposure determinants of cadmium in European mothers and their children.

The metal cadmium (Cd) is a widespread environmental pollutant with documented adverse effects on the kidneys and bones from long-term environmental exposure, but with insufficiently elucidated public health consequences such as risk of cardiovascular disease, hormone-related cancer in adults and developmental effects in children. This study is the first pan-European human biomonitoring project that succeeded in performing harmonized measurements of Cd in urine in a comparable way in mother-child couples from 16 European countries. The aim of the study was to evaluate the overall Cd exposure and significant determinants of Cd exposure. A study population of 1632 women (24-52 years of age), and 1689 children (5-12 years of age), from 32 rural and urban areas, was examined within a core period of 6 months in 2011-2012. Women were stratified as smokers and non-smokers. As expected, smoking mothers had higher geometric mean (gm) urinary cadmium (UCd; 0.24 µg/g crea; n=360) than non-smoking mothers (gm 0.18 µg/g crea; n=1272; p<0.0001), and children had lower UCd (gm 0.065 µg/g crea; n=1689) than their mothers at the country level. Non-smoking women exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) at home had 14% (95% CI 1-28%) higher UCd than those who were not exposed to ETS at home (p=0.04). No influence of ETS at home or other places on UCd levels was detected in children. Smoking women with primary education as the highest educational level of the household had 48% (95% CI 18-86%) higher UCd than those with tertiary education (p=0.0008). The same observation was seen in non-smoking women and in children; however they were not statistically significant. In children, living in a rural area was associated with 7% (95% CI 1-13%) higher UCd (p=0.03) compared to living in an urban area. Children, 9-12 years had 7% (95% CI 1-13%) higher UCd (p=0.04) than children 5-8 years. About 1% of the mothers, and 0.06% of the children, exceeded the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) appointed by EFSA, corresponding to 1.0 µg Cd/g crea in urine. Poland had the highest UCd in comparison between the 16 countries, while Denmark had the lowest. Whether the differences between countries are related to differences in the degree of environmental Cd contamination or to differences in lifestyle, socioeconomic status or dietary patterns is not clear.

Biological monitoring versus air monitoring strategies in assessing environmental-occupational exposure.

Assessment of environmental and occupational exposure to chemicals can be performed with environmental monitoring (EM) and biological monitoring (BM). Biological monitoring was for a long time considered as a method complementary to environmental monitoring. At present this attitude is changing and in certain areas biological monitoring is applied as the method of choice for exposure and health-risk assessment. This paper examines advantages and disadvantages of those two approaches. In occupational settings environmental monitoring of exposure to VOCs seems to be superior to biological monitoring (possibility of simultaneous determination of components of mixtures, simple interpretation, possibility of evaluation of short-term exposure to local irritants). In the case of this group of compounds BM can be useful in selected cases such as evaluation of dermal absorption or efficiency of protective measures. In the case of metals both forms of monitoring can be used depending on the available methods for interpretation of results. BM of exposure may be considered as superior for evaluating the effects of exposure to lead, cadmium and mercury. However, quantitative evaluation of cancer risk after exposure to arsenic or chromium is possible only on the basis of determination in the air and the use of unit risk values. Both environmental and biological monitoring are useful for evaluation of occupational and environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In certain areas such as evaluation of exposure to external tobacco smoking, cytostatic drugs, and pesticides, biological monitoring is the method of choice used for individual exposure assessment or tracing the trends of environmental exposure.

Predictive Model for the Surface Tension Changes of Chemical Solutions Used in a Clean-in-Place System.

The paper presents the results concerning the influence of concentration and storage time on the equilibrium surface tension of chemical solutions used in a clean-in place (CIP) system. Standard cleaning solutions (prepared under laboratory conditions) and industrial solutions (used in a CIP system in a brewery) were subjected to tests. Solutions from the brewery were collected after being regenerated and changes in equilibrium surface tension were studied during a three-month storage. In the statistical analysis of the solutions, standard deviations were determined in relation to the averages, and a Tukey's multiple comparison test was performed to determine the effect of dependent variables on the surface tension of solutions. From the results, a nonlinear regression model was developed that provided a mathematical description of the kinetics of changes in the wetting properties of the solutions during their storage. A linear-logarithmic function was adopted to describe the regeneration. Numerical calculations were performed based on the nonlinear least squares method using the Gauss-Newton algorithm. The adequacy of the regression models with respect to the empirical data was verified by the coefficient of determination R and the standard error of estimation Se. The results showed that as the concentration of the substance in the cleaning solution increased, its wetting properties decreased. The same effect was observed with increased storage time as the greatest changes occurred during the first eight weeks. The study also showed that the use of substances to stabilize the cleaning solutions prevented deterioration of their wetting properties, regardless of the concentration of the active substance or storage time.

Rheological Properties of Industrial Hot Trub.

The boiling of beer wort with hops results in the formation of a hot trub, a sediment consisting mainly of water-insoluble tannin and protein conglomerates and hop residue. Hot trub is a waste product, removed in a clarifying tank and discarded. The use of barley malt substitutes in recipes for beer is associated with an increase in the amount of generated hot trub. In presented study, an analysis of the rheological properties of industrial hot trub was carried out. Samples varied with regard to the quantities of unmalted barley (0%, 35%, and 45%) and worts' extract (12.5, 14.1, 16.1, and 18.2 °Plato) in the recipe. The rheology of each type of sludge was determined using a hysteresis loop at four different temperatures. The results showed the shear-thinning and thixotropic properties of the hot trub. It was found that, regardless of the raw material and extract used, all samples exhibited the same rheological properties, but with different values. It was also proved that both raw material composition and temperature affected the hot trub's rheology. The highest values of viscosity were identified for malted barley, whereas the lowest apparent viscosity values were recorded for the hot trub with a 30% addition of unmalted barley. The Herschel-Bulkley model had the best fit to the experimental data.

Increasing the Efficiency of Food Material Cutting during Inclined and Shear Movements of Knife.

Mathematical models for predicting the resistance forces that are developed during the inclined and sliding cutting of food materials have been developed. The dependence of the actual cutting angle on the angle of inclination and sliding speed of the cutting edge at various sharpening angles have been investigated. For the inclined cutting mode, the dependence of the useful resistance force on the cutting speed has been determined at various angles of inclination of the cutting edge and designed sharpening angles. For the sliding cutting mode, the dependence of the useful resistance force on the feeding speed has been demonstrated at various sliding speed values and designed knife sharpening angles. The dependence of the transformed dimensionless sharpness of the knife on the angle of inclination of the cutting edge and the sliding speed has been established for different constructional sharpness values of the knife. The results of the study indicate that the useful resistance force is significantly reduced during the inclined and sliding cutting processes when compared with the normal cutting process, and a change in the pattern of fiber destruction, which significantly increases the cutting efficiency of cutting tools, is obtained.

Unmetabolized VOCs in urine as biomarkers of low level occupational exposure.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the usefulness of determining unchanged forms of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), namely toluene (TOL), ethylbenzene (EB) and xylene (XYL), in urine with the effectiveness of the already used biomarkers of occupational exposure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Surveys were conducted in two workplaces (paint factory and footwear factory). In total, 65 subjects participated in the study. Air samples were collected using individual samplers during work shift. Urine and blood samples were collected at the end of work shift. Urine samples were analyzed for unchanged compounds and selected metabolites, while blood samples were tested for unchanged compounds. VOCs in blood and urine were determined by solid phase microextraction gas chromatography (SPME-GC-MS). RESULTS: In the paint factory, the geometric mean (GM) concentrations of VOCs in the air ranged as follows: 0.2-4.7 mg/m(3) for TOL, 0.4-40.9 mg/m(3) for EB and 0.1-122.6 mg/m(3) for XYL. In the footwear factory, the GM concentration of TOL in the air amounted to 105.4 mg/m(3). A significant correlation (p < 0.05) was observed between VOCs in blood, urine and air. The regression analyses performed for paint factory workers showed that TOL-U and TOL-B were better biomarkers of exposure (r = 0.72 and r = 0.81) than benzoic acid (r = 0.12) or o-cresol (r = 0.55). CONCLUSION: The findings of the study point out that the concentration of unchanged VOCs in urine can be a reliable biological indicator of low level occupational exposure to these compounds.

A proposal for calculating occupational exposure limits for volatile organic compounds acting as sensory irritants on the basis of their physicochemical properties.

A common biological effect of exposure to workplace chemicals is sensory irritation. The ACGIH(R) threshold limit values (TLVs(R)) are developed based on data derived from industrial settings as well as experimental human and animal studies. Considering the limited amount of human data and the tendency to reduce the volume of animal testing, there is a need for an alternative method to assess sensory irritation. Nasal pungency involves transfer of a compound through the mucosa into the receptor area. This environment is inhomogeneous, being partly a hydrophobic lipid-like and hydrophilic aqueous-like area. A general equation has been developed that seems satisfactory for explaining the transfer of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the gaseous phase to biophases, making it possible to calculate the nasal pungency threshold (NPT). The obtained correlation between log 1/NPT and log TLV for 71 VOCs, which is based exclusively on their irritant properties, indicates that for the compounds that act through a nonreactive mechanism (alcohols, ketones, esters, ethers, aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, amides) the relationship between these values differs from that calculated for compounds that act through a reactive mechanism (aldehydes, allyl compounds, aliphatic amines, benzyl halides, carboxylic acids, acrylates, and mercaptans). The correlation coefficient for nonreactive VOCs is very high (n = 46, r = 0.89), and it appears that the regression equation (log TLV = -0.422 log 1/NPT + 0.309) could be used to predict occupational exposure limits (OELs) for this group of compounds. Regarding reactive VOCs, the correlation coefficient is considerably lower (n = 25, r = 0.32), which implies that some kind of correction for their reactivity would have to be applied to calculate the OEL values.

[Application of predictive model to estimate concentrations of chemical substances in the work environment]. / Zastosowanie modelu predykcyjnego do szacowania wielkosci stezen wybranych substancji chemicznych w powietrzu srodowiska pracy.

BACKGROUND: Based on the Estimation and Assessment of Substance Exposure (EASE) predictive model implemented into the European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances (EUSES 2.1.), the exposure to three chosen organic solvents: toluene, ethyl acetate and acetone was estimated and compared with the results of measurements in workplaces. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Prior to validation, the EASE model was pretested using three exposure scenarios. The scenarios differed in the decision tree of pattern of use. Five substances were chosen for the test: 1,4-dioxane tert-methyl-butyl ether, diethylamine, 1,1,1-trichloroethane and bisphenol A. After testing the EASE model, the next step was the validation by estimating the exposure level and comparing it with the results of measurements in the workplace. We used the results of measurements of toluene, ethyl acetate and acetone concentrations in the work environment of a paint and lacquer factory, a shoe factory and a refinery. Three types of exposure scenarios, adaptable to the description of working conditions were chosen to estimate inhalation exposure. RESULTS: Comparison of calculated exposure to toluene, ethyl acetate and acetone with measurements in workplaces showed that model predictions are comparable with the measurement results. Only for low concentration ranges, the measured concentrations were higher than those predicted. CONCLUSIONS: EASE is a clear, consistent system, which can be successfully used as an additional component of inhalation exposure estimation. If the measurement data are available, they should be preferred to values estimated from models. In addition to inhalation exposure estimation, the EASE model makes it possible not only to assess exposure-related risk but also to predict workers' dermal exposure.

Simulation Studies on Centrifugal MQL-CCA Method of Applying Coolant during Internal Cylindrical Grinding Process.

This paper describes simulation studies regarding the application of the centrifugal minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) method simultaneously with the delivery of a compressed cooled air (CCA) stream in the internal cylindrical grinding process. The idea of a new hybrid cooling and lubrication method connecting centrifugal (through a grinding wheel) lubrication by MQL with a CCA stream is described. The methodology of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation studies, as well as the results of numerical simulations, are presented in detail. The aim of the simulations was to determine the most favourable geometrical and kinematic parameters of the system in the context of air-oil aerosol and CCA flow, as well as heat exchange. In the simulation, the variables were the grinding arbor geometrical parameters, the angle of CCA supply line outlets, and the grinding wheel and workpiece peripheral speed. As a result of the simulation studies, the most favourable geometrical parameters were designated, determining the orientation of the ends of the two CCA supply line outlets before and after the grinding zone, the number of openings in the drilled-out grinding arbor, and the influence of the grinding speed on the parameters of the coolant flow and temperature of objects in the grinding zone. In addition, the results of simulation tests made it possible to visualise the velocity vectors of the two-phase coolant flow in a complex system of air-oil aerosol delivery centrifugally through an open structure of a very fast rotating porous layer (grinding wheel), with an additional supply of CCA using an external cold air gun (CAG).

Renal and neurologic effects of cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic in children: evidence of early effects and multiple interactions at environmental exposure levels.

Lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic are common environmental pollutants in industrialized countries, but their combined impact on children's health is little known. We studied their effects on two main targets, the renal and dopaminergic systems, in > 800 children during a cross-sectional European survey. Control and exposed children were recruited from those living around historical nonferrous smelters in France, the Czech Republic, and Poland. Children provided blood and urine samples for the determination of the metals and sensitive renal or neurologic biomarkers. Serum concentrations of creatinine, cystatin C, and beta2-microglobulin were negatively correlated with blood lead levels (PbB), suggesting an early renal hyperfiltration that averaged 7% in the upper quartile of PbB levels (> 55 microg/L; mean, 78.4 microg/L). The urinary excretion of retinol-binding protein, Clara cell protein, and N-acetyl-beta-d-glucosaminidase was associated mainly with cadmium levels in blood or urine and with urinary mercury. All four metals influenced the dopaminergic markers serum prolactin and urinary homovanillic acid, with complex interactions brought to light. Heavy metals polluting the environment can cause subtle effects on children's renal and dopaminergic systems without clear evidence of a threshold, which reinforces the need to control and regulate potential sources of contamination by heavy metals. Key words: arsenic, biomarkers, cadmium, dopaminergic, heavy metals, interactions, lead, mercury, renal.

[Effectiveness of preventive actions for lead exposed workers: an assessment based on biological monitoring]. / Ocena skutecznosci dzialan profilaktycznych u pracowników narazonych na olów na podstawie badan monitoringu biologicznego.

Biological monitoring plays a significant part in the assessment of occupational exposure to lead. The method basically comprises determinations of blood lead concentration and of one of early toxic-effect biomarkers: the level of either zincprotoporphyrin (ZnPP) in blood or deltaaminolevulinic acid (ALA) in urine. However, biological monitoring is conducted only in 25% of all industrial plants, where the employed technological processes are the source of occupational lead exposure. The project that has been implemented by the Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, Lódz, Poland and Outpatient Clinic for Occupational Health, Poznan, Poland, since 1997 made it possible to assess the dynamics of lead exposure in one of the largest battery plants in Western Poland. Based on the analysis of blood lead determinations in lead-exposed workers, the authors could trace the effectiveness of the project aimed at reducing lead exposure in the plant. The findings revealed that the preventive measures applied over the years 1997-2005 resulted in a considerably decreased percentage of blood lead concentrations exceeding the relevant BEI (biological exposure index) value of 500 microg/l: from 19% in 1997 to 1% in 2005. Such a high effectiveness of the project can be mostly attributed to a successful cooperation between the occupational physician, in-plant occupational health services, and the employer. They were all actively involved in a wide-range of activities for workers' health protection and workplace health promotion.

Biological monitoring of exposure: trends and key developments.

The concept of biological monitoring (BM) has gained the special interest of individual scientists and international organizations. Today, when analytical problems have almost ceased due to new laboratory techniques and quality assurance systems, the methods for interpretation of results have become the most important issue. There are important discrepancies regarding the role of biological monitoring of occupational exposure between Europe and the United States. BM has been an important tool of medical health surveillance in the European countries. In the United States it belongs rather to the field of occupational hygiene. It seems that both the approaches can be accepted. More attention should be paid to the development of the truly health-based biomarkers of exposure based on the dose-effect and dose-response relationships. New areas of application of BM of occupational exposure include determination of DNA and protein adducts, unchanged volatile organic compounds in urine, monitoring of exposure to pesticides, antineoplastic drugs, hard metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In the general environment BM is the most valuable tool for acquiring knowledge of current levels of internal exposure to xenobiotics, identifying the hot spots and developments in trends of exposure. BM can provide policy makers with more accurate information on the control measures undertaken. At present, the main areas include heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants and pesticides. BM of chemical exposure has become increasingly important in the assessment of the health risk in occupational and environmental medicine. Therefore it would be worthwhile to include BM in the curricula for the training of occupational hygienists.

Influence of occupational exposure to organic solvents on kidney function.

Exposure to nephrotoxic substances may cause renal tubular and glomerular dysfunction. The aim of the paper was to evaluate, based on literature reports, whether occupational exposure to organic solvents entails a risk of renal dysfunction. The results of the studies performed over the last twenty years are contradictory. In workers occupationally exposed to organic solvents, tubular, glomerular, or no effects were found. The lack of association between the renal effects and the intensity or duration of exposure was reported in most of the studies. It has been suggested that this can be attributed to an individual susceptibility. Available information points to a possibility of mild renal effects, but not to a serious influence on the kidney function at the current levels of occupational exposure to organic solvents. Biological monitoring of early effects can help identify individuals susceptible to nephrotoxicity of this group of chemicals.

[Asessment of occupational exposure to lead in Poland]. / Ocena narazenia zawodowego na olów w Polsce.

The aim of the study was to assess the current occupational exposure to lead in Poland and to evaluate the competence of laboratories responsible for biological monitoring and analysis of health risks in workers exposed to lead. According to the current data, 26,500 workers are employed in 517 factories, including 1895 persons working under condition of exposure exceeding the Polish MAC level of 0.050 mg/m3. The biological monitoring analysis includes measurements of blood lead (Pb-B). Levels and concentrations of one of the markers of early health effect are carried out only in 22% (112) of plants, covering only 76% (20,300) of all workers. Of the 18 laboratories performing this kind of determinations, only 2 are granted the analytical laboratory accreditation certificate. The obtained data indicate that occupational exposure to lead is still a problem in Polish industry. The proportion (76%) of the workers covered with biological monitoring analysis show that neither the recommendations laid down in the decree of 1996 issued by the Minister of Health and Social Welfare, and reinforced by the Minister of Health in 2004, nor the EU directive (98/24/EC) is universally observed. Both these documents provide for that Pb-B determinations in employees occupationally exposed to lead are compulsory. The competences of the majority of analytical laboratories are not sufficient to evaluate biological monitoring analysis in workers occupationally exposed to lead. They have not yet adopted the obligatory Polish versions of European standards of the quality assurance set in PN-EN ISO/IEC 17025. The Minister of Health issued another decree, dated 20 April 2005, according to which from 1 January 2008 every analytical laboratory will have to possess accreditation.

First steps toward harmonized human biomonitoring in Europe: demonstration project to perform human biomonitoring on a European scale.

BACKGROUND: For Europe as a whole, data on internal exposure to environmental chemicals do not yet exist. Characterization of the internal individual chemical environment is expected to enhance understanding of the environmental threats to health. OBJECTIVES: We developed and applied a harmonized protocol to collect comparable human biomonitoring data all over Europe. METHODS: In 17 European countries, we measured mercury in hair and cotinine, phthalate metabolites, and cadmium in urine of 1,844 children (5-11 years of age) and their mothers. Specimens were collected over a 5-month period in 2011-2012. We obtained information on personal characteristics, environment, and lifestyle. We used the resulting database to compare concentrations of exposure biomarkers within Europe, to identify determinants of exposure, and to compare exposure biomarkers with health-based guidelines. RESULTS: Biomarker concentrations showed a wide variability in the European population. However, levels in children and mothers were highly correlated. Most biomarker concentrations were below the health-based guidance values. CONCLUSIONS: We have taken the first steps to assess personal chemical exposures in Europe as a whole. Key success factors were the harmonized protocol development, intensive training and capacity building for field work, chemical analysis and communication, as well as stringent quality control programs for chemical and data analysis. Our project demonstrates the feasibility of a Europe-wide human biomonitoring framework to support the decision-making process of environmental measures to protect public health.

Interest of genotyping and phenotyping of drug-metabolizing enzymes for the interpretation of biological monitoring of exposure to styrene.

In the field of occupational and/or environmental toxicology, the measurement of specific metabolites in urine may serve to assess exposure to the parent compounds (biological monitoring of exposure). Styrene is one of the chemicals for which biological monitoring programs have been validated and implemented in environmental and occupational medicine. However, inter-individual differences in the urinary excretion exist both for the main end-products (mandelic acid and phenylglyoxylic acid) and for its specific mercapturic acids (phenylhydroxyethylmercapturic acids, PHEMA). This limits to a certain extent the use of these metabolites for an accurate assessment of styrene exposure. In a group of 26 volunteers selected with relevant genotypes, and exposed to styrene vapours (50 mg/m3, 8 h) in an inhalation chamber, we evaluated whether genotyping or phenotyping relevant drug-metabolizing enzymes (CYP2E1, EPHX1, GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1) may help to explain the observed inter-individual variability in the urinary metabolite excretion. Peripheral blood lymphocytes were used for genotyping and as reporter cells for the phenotyping of CYP2E1 and EPHX1. The GSTM1 genotype was clearly the most significant parameter explaining the variance in urinary PHEMA excretion (6-fold lower in GSTM1 null subjects; P < 0.0001) so that systematic GSTM1 genotyping should be recommended routinely for a correct interpretation of PHEMA urinary levels. Variant alleles CYP2E1*6 (7632T>A) and His113EPHX1 were associated with a significant reduction of, respectively, the expression (P = 0.047) and activity (P = 0.022) of the enzyme in peripheral blood lymphocytes. In combination with GSTM1 genotyping, the phenotyping approach also contributed to improve the interpretation of urinary results, as illustrated by the combined effect of CYP2E1 expression and GSTM1 allelic status that explained 77% of the variance in PHEMA excretion and allows the recommendation of mercapturates as specific and reliable biomarkers of exposure to styrene.

Integrated indexes of occupational exposure as predictors of kidney dysfunction.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the dose-effect and dose-response relationships between the integrated indexes Cd-A x t (mg/m3 x years of exposure) and Cd-B x t (microg/l x years of exposure), and the increase in retinol binding protein excretion in urine (RBP-U) and beta2-microglobulin concentration in serum (beta2M-S). The study was carried out in the nickel-cadmium battery factory in 1998-1999. Exposure to cadmium was formerly very high. The study group consisted of 116 persons for whom the results of determinations of Cd-B were available during two former observation periods (1983 and 1986-1988). The mean age of the group was 49 years and the mean period of exposure was 17 years. The dose-effect relationship between Cd-B x t and RBP-U or beta2M-S was much better (r = 0.642 and 0.513) than between Cd-A x t and RBP-U or beta2M-S (r = 0.173 and 0.127). There was also correlation between Cd-U (microg/g creatinine), measured in 1998-1999, and RBP-U or beta2M-S (r = 0.343 and 0.198). Urinary cadmium should, however, be used with caution as a dose estimate because its excretion may increase as a result of renal damage. According to the dose-response relationship, an increase in RBP excretion above 300 microg/g creatinine can be expected in 10% of subjects at the integrated exposure index (Cd-B x t) of about 450 microg/l x years, and an increase in beta2M-S above the accepted cut-off point of 2.4 mg/l can be expected in 10 % of subjects at Cd-B x t of about 190 microg/l x years. The data obtained confirmed the validity of the recommended at present health-based limit for occupational exposure of 5 microg/l of blood, as well as the superiority of the biological monitoring of exposure to cadmium over the environmental monitoring.

Influence of long-term occupational exposure to cadmium on lung function tests results.

OBJECTIVES: The study aimed at assessing the lung function in workers exposed to cadmium (Cd). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Pulmonary ventilatory function was assessed in 79 workers (mean age, 50.4+/-8.9 years, 44% of male workers) previously exposed to cadmium in a cadmium battery plant. The group, not occupationally exposed to cadmium (n = 159, mean age, 48.4+/-4.2 years, 56% of males) was selected from the inhabitants of the same town. All the subjects were examined at the same out-patient-clinic. In cadmium battery workers measurements of blood cadmium concentrations have been performed since 1983 by the Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine in Lódz, Poland. The data on cadmium concentrations in the air were obtained from the plant's files covering the period of 1981-1999. All subjects were divided into four groups according to their cumulative cadmium exposure indexes: Cd-B x t (Cd in blood in microg/l x years of exposure ) ( index 1) or Cd-A x t (Cd in air mg/m3 years of exposure) (index 2). The ranges of Cd-B x t amounted to <25; 25-500; >500-1000 and > 1000 and Cd-A x t to <0.01; 0.01-1.5; >1.5-4.0 and >4.0. Statistical analysis of the results was performed by means of one-way analysis of variance with multiple comparison tests and Fisher's exact test. RESULTS: The analysis of index 1 showed that only the group with the highest exposure level (>1000 microg Cd-B x years ) had a significantly decreased values for forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) peak expiratory flow rate (PEF) maximum midexpiratory flow (MEF) at 25%, 50%, and 75% compared to the group with the lowest exposure (<25 microg/l x years). As revealed by the analysis of index 2, the highest exposure group (>4 mg Cd-A x t) showed a significantly decreased MEF at 50% and not quite significantly decreased FEV1. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to high cadmium concentrations in the cadmium battery plant resulted in the deterioration of some lung functions in the workers, suggesting a mild airway obstruction.

[Biological monitoring of chemical exposure]. / Monitoring biologiczny narazenia na czynniki toksyczne.

The concept of biological monitoring (BM) has evoked a lot of interest among individual scientists and international organizations. Biological monitoring of exposure has thus far been applied to environmental and occupational toxicology or epidemiological studies. At present, BM plays no more than complementary role in industrial hygiene. Moreover, it is not clear whether BM belongs to occupational hygiene or to occupational medicine. Consequently, BM recommendations are not regarded as legal standards in most countries. Nowadays, when analytical problems have almost ceased to exist due to new laboratory techniques and quality assurance systems, the methods for interpreting the results have become a major issue. New, promising areas of BM application include determination of pesticides, antineoplastic drugs, hard metals, and unchanged volatile organic compounds in urine. The identification of new possible health-based biomarkers of exposure and the development of more sensitive methods due to decreasing occupational exposure limits seem to be one of the most important issues.