Effects of meteorological and land surface modeling uncertainty on errors in winegrape ET calculated with SIMS.

Characterization of model errors is important when applying satellite-driven evapotranspiration (ET) models to water resource management problems. This study examines how uncertainty in meteorological forcing data and land surface modeling propagate through to errors in final ET data calculated using the Satellite Irrigation Management Support (SIMS) model, a computationally efficient ET model driven with satellite surface reflectance values. The model is applied to three instrumented winegrape vineyards over the 2017-2020 time period and the spatial and temporal variation in errors are analyzed. We illustrate how meteorological data inputs can introduce biases that vary in space and at seasonal timescales, but that can persist from year to year. We also observe that errors in SIMS estimates of land surface conductance can have a particularly strong dependence on time of year. Overall, meteorological inputs introduced RMSE of 0.33-0.65 mm/day (7-27%) across sites, while SIMS introduced RMSE of 0.55-0.83 mm/day (19-24%). The relative error contribution from meteorological inputs versus SIMS varied across sites; errors from SIMS were larger at one site, errors from meteorological inputs were larger at a second site, and the error contributions were of equal magnitude at the third site. The similar magnitude of error contributions is significant given that many satellite-driven ET models differ in their approaches to estimating land surface conductance, but often rely on similar or identical meteorological forcing data. The finding is particularly notable given that SIMS makes assumptions about the land surface (no soil evaporation or plant water stress) that do not always hold in practice. The results of this study show that improving SIMS by eliminating these assumptions would result in meteorological inputs dominating the error budget of the model on the whole. This finding underscores the need for further work on characterizing spatial uncertainty in the meteorological forcing of ET. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00271-022-00808-9.

Nuclear localization of poly(A)+ mRNA following siRNA reduction of expression of the mammalian RNA helicases UAP56 and URH49.

UAP56 is a eukaryotic RNA helicase that is important for mRNA splicing and nuclear export. Although most eukaryotes have a single protein corresponding to UAP56, we have shown previously that in human and mouse cells there is a second protein, URH49, which is 90% identical to UAP56. Both proteins interact with the mRNA export factor Aly and both are able to rescue the loss of Sub2p (the yeast homolog of UAP56), suggesting that both proteins have similar functions. However, the two helicases have different expression profiles in different tissues and in growth-stimulated cells, which raises the possibility that they might be involved in the splicing and export of non-identical populations of mRNA. In the present study, we have used RNA interference to further explore the functions of these two helicases. Reducing the expression of either URH49 or UAP56 in HeLa cells had little effect on cell proliferation or expression of a co-transfected gene. However, analysis of poly(A)+ RNA localization by fluorescent in situ hybridization revealed a speckled pattern of RNA accumulation throughout the nucleus. Reducing the expression of both helicases resulted in a major reduction in reporter gene expression as well as cell death within 72 h. We also observed a more prominent speckled pattern of nuclear poly(A)+ RNA accumulation as well as reduced accumulation in the cytoplasmic compartment. These observations suggest that both helicases have essential but largely overlapping functions in the processing and export of mammalian mRNAs.

Growth-regulated expression and G0-specific turnover of the mRNA that encodes URH49, a mammalian DExH/D box protein that is highly related to the mRNA export protein UAP56.

URH49 is a mammalian protein that is 90% identical to the DExH/D box protein UAP56, an RNA helicase that is important for splicing and nuclear export of mRNA. Although Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Drosophila express only a single protein corresponding to UAP56, mRNAs encoding URH49 and UAP56 are both expressed in human and mouse cells. Both proteins interact with the mRNA export factor Aly and both are able to rescue the loss of Sub2p (the yeast homolog of UAP56), indicating that both proteins have similar functions. UAP56 mRNA is more abundant than URH49 mRNA in many tissues, although in testes URH49 mRNA is much more abundant. UAP56 and URH49 mRNAs are present at similar levels in proliferating cultured cells. However, when the cells enter quiescence, the URH49 mRNA level decreases 3-6-fold while the UAP56 mRNA level remains relatively constant. The amount of URH49 mRNA increases to the level found in proliferating cells within 5 h when quiescent cells are growth-stimulated or when protein synthesis is inhibited. URH49 mRNA is relatively unstable (T(1/2) = 4 h) in quiescent cells, but is stabilized immediately following growth stimulation or inhibition of protein synthesis. In contrast, there is much less change in the content or stability of UAP56 mRNA following growth stimulation. Our observations suggest that in mammalian cells, two UAP56-like RNA helicases are involved in splicing and nuclear export of mRNA. Differential expression of these helicases may lead to quantitative or qualitative changes in mRNA expression.

Introduction of an initiator element in the mouse thymidylate synthase promoter alters S phase regulation but has no effect on promoter bidirectionality.

The promoter of the mouse thymidylate synthase (TS) gene lacks a TATAA box and an initiator element, is bidirectional and initiates transcription at multiple start sites across broad initiation windows upstream and downstream of the 30 nt essential promoter region. The TS promoter also plays an essential role in the post-transcription regulation of TS gene expression during the G(1)-S phase transition. The goal of this study was to determine if the addition of a TATAA box or an initiator element would have a significant effect on start-site pattern, promoter bidirectionality and S phase regulation of the TS gene. A TATAA box and/or an initiator element were inserted downstream of the TS essential promoter region, and the modified promoters were used to drive expression of indicator genes. The engineered genes were transfected into cultured mammalian cells, and the effects of the mutations were determined. Addition of the TATAA box and especially the initiator element had a significant effect on the transcription start site pattern, indicating that the elements were functional. Unexpectedly, addition of one or both of these elements had no effect on promoter bidirectionality. However, inclusion of the initiator element led to a significant reduction in S phase regulation of TS mRNA levels, indicating that changes in promoter architecture can perturb normal S phase regulation of TS gene expression.

Synergistic activation of the TATA-less mouse thymidylate synthase promoter by the Ets transcription factor GABP and Sp1.

The mouse thymidylate synthase (TS) promoter lacks a TATA box and an initiator element and directs transcriptional initiation at multiple sites over a 90-nucleotide region. The minimum sequence required for wild-type promoter activity has been mapped to a 30-nucleotide essential promoter region that partially overlaps the 5' end of the transcriptional initiation window. The essential promoter region contains two potential binding sites for members of the Ets family of transcription factors as well as a binding site for Sp1. Promoter mutation analyses revealed that all three of these sites are important for promoter activity. Transient cotransfection assays showed that GABP, a heterodimeric Ets factor, is able to stimulate expression of reporter genes driven by the wild-type mouse TS promoter whereas several other Ets factors have no effect. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays revealed that recombinant GABP binds to both Ets elements in the essential promoter region. Stimulation of promoter activity by GABP is diminished when either Ets element is inactivated and is prevented when both Ets elements are inactivated. Transient cotransfection assays revealed that Sp1 and GABP stimulate TS promoter activity in a highly synergistic manner.

Human cytomegalovirus infection induces cellular thymidylate synthase gene expression in quiescent fibroblasts.

Productive infection of non-proliferating cells by cytomegalovirus (CMV) requires the coordinated stimulation of host biochemical pathways that prepare cells to synthesize DNA. Here we illustrate the ability of human CMV (HCMV) to stimulate cellular thymidylate synthase (TS) gene expression in quiescent human embryonic lung fibroblasts. TS mRNA and protein levels are nearly undetectable in quiescent cells, but are greatly increased following HCMV infection. Inhibition of TS activity was shown to impair HCMV DNA synthesis, demonstrating that TS upregulation is required for efficient HCMV replication in quiescent cells. The increase in TS gene expression was due to an increase in gene transcription, since the expression of a reporter gene driven by the human TS promoter was strongly induced by HCMV infection. Deletion analysis of the human TS promoter identified two positive elements that are important for this increased transcription. We have previously shown that murine CMV (MCMV) stimulates the mouse TS promoter by a mechanism that depends on the presence of an E2F element in the promoter region. However, deletion of the two potential E2F binding sites in the human TS promoter did not prevent the virus-induced increase in TS promoter activity. Our data suggest that HCMV activates human TS gene transcription by mechanisms that are independent of E2F and different from those used by MCMV to stimulate the mouse TS promoter.