Integrated tuberculosis and HIV care in a resource-limited setting: experience from the Martin Preuss centre, Malawi.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the development and operation of integrated tuberculosis (TB) and HIV care at the Martin Preuss Centre, a multipartner organization bringing together governmental and non-governmental providers of HIV and TB services in Lilongwe, Malawi. METHODS: We used a case study approach to describe the integrated TB/HIV service and to illustrate successes and challenges faced by service providers. We quantified effective TB and HIV integration using indicators defined by the World Health Organization. RESULTS: The custom-designed building facilitates patient flow and infection control, and other important elements include coordinated leadership; joint staff training and meetings; and data systems prompting coordinated care. Some integrated services have worked well from the outset, such as promoting HIV testing among patients with TB (96% of patients with TB had documented HIV status in 2009). Other aspects of integrated care have been more challenging, for example achieving high uptake of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive TB patients and combining data from paper and electronic systems. Good TB treatment outcomes (>85% cure or completion) have been achieved among both HIV-positive and HIV-negative individuals. CONCLUSIONS: High-quality integrated services for TB and HIV care can be provided in a resource-limited setting. Lessons learned may be valuable for service providers in other settings of high HIV and TB prevalence.

Characteristics and management of presumptive tuberculosis in public health facilities in Malawi, 2014-2016.

Setting: Public health facilities providing tuberculosis (TB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) services in Malawi. Objectives: Using routinely collected health service delivery data to describe trends in HIV ascertainment and use of the Xpert® MTB/RIF assay to diagnose TB among HIV-positive presumptive TB cases. Design: This was an implementation study of presumptive TB cases who sought care from 21 facilities between April 2014 and June 2016. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise patient, facility and service level characteristics. Results: Of 28 567 presumptive TB cases analysed, 23 198 (81%) had known HIV status. The proportion of ascertained HIV status in presumptive TB cases increased over the study period. HIV prevalence was 49%, with 73% of HIV-positive presumptive TB cases on antiretroviral therapy. Access to Xpert ranged between 37% and 63% per quarter among HIV-positive presumptive TB patients with smear-negative sputum results. Of 7829 patients with documented Xpert results, 68% were HIV-positive. Conclusion: After the introduction of registers with HIV-related variables, HIV ascertainment among presumptive TB cases increased over time. Access to Xpert was suboptimal among HIV-positive presumptive TB cases. Further collaboration between national TB and HIV programmes may facilitate increased use of Xpert for HIV-positive patients with presumptive TB who seek care in public health facilities.

Contexte : Structures de santé publiques offrant des services de la tuberculose (TB) et du virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) au Malawi.Objectifs : Utilisant des données recueillies en routine de prestation des services de santé, décrire les tendances de la vérification du VIH et de l'utilisation du test Xpert® MTB/RIF afin de diagnostiquer la TB parmi les cas présumés de TB qui sont VIH positifs.Schéma : Etude de mise en œuvre des cas présumés de TB qui ont sollicité des soins dans 21 structures entre avril 2014 et juin 2016. Nous avons utilisé des statistiques descriptives pour résumer les caractéristiques des patients, des structures et des services.Résultats : Sur les 28 567 cas présumés de TB qui ont été analysés, 23 198 (81%) connaissaient leur statut VIH. La proportion de statuts VIH vérifiés parmi les cas de TB présumés a augmenté tout au long de la période d'étude. La prévalence du VIH a été de 49%, avec 73% des patients VIH positifs présumés TB sous traitement antirétroviral. L'accès à Xpert était entre 37% et 63% par trimestre parmi les patients VIH positifs présumés TB avec des résultats de frottis de crachats négatifs. Sur les 7829 patients ayant des résultats documentés d'Xpert, 68% ont été VIH positifs.Conclusion : Après l'introduction des registres comportant des variables liées au statut VIH, la constatation du VIH parmi les cas présumés de TB a augmenté dans le temps. L'accès à Xpert a été sous-optimal parmi les cas de TB présumés VIH-positifs. Davantage de collaboration entre les programmes nationaux TB et VIH pourrait faciliter une utilisation accrue d'Xpert pour les patients VIH positifs avec une présomption de TB qui sollicitent des soins dans des structures de santé publiques.

Marco de referencia: Los establecimientos públicos de atención de salud que prestan servicios relacionados con la tuberculosis (TB) y la infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) en Malawi.Objetivos: A partir de los datos recogidos de manera sistemática sobre la prestación de los servicios de salud, describir la evolución de la determinación de la situación frente al VIH y de la utilización de la prueba Xpert® MTB/RIF para el diagnóstico de TB, en los casos positivos frente al VIH con presunción clínica de esta enfermedad.Método: Se llevó a cabo un estudio de implementación de los casos con presunción de TB que buscaron atención en 21 centros, de abril 2014 a junio 2016. Se utilizaron estadísticas descriptivas a fin de resumir las características de los pacientes, los establecimientos y los servicios.Resultados: De los 28 567 casos con presunción de TB analizados, 23 198 conocían su situación frente al VIH (81%). La proporción de determinación de la situación frente al VIH en los casos analizados aumentó durante el período del estudio. La prevalencia de infección por el VIH fue 49% y el 73% de estos casos recibía tratamiento antirretrovírico. El acceso a la prueba Xpert osciló entre 37% y 63% por trimestre en los pacientes positivos frente al VIH con presunción de TB y resultados negativos de la baciloscopia de esputo. De los 7829 pacientes con resultado de la prueba Xpert, en el 68% la prueba fue positiva.Conclusión: Tras la introducción de los registros que comportan variables relacionadas con el VIH, la determinación de la situación frente al VIH en los casos con presunción de TB ha aumentado en el transcurso del tiempo. El acceso a la prueba Xpert fue deficiente en los pacientes positivos frente al VIH, con presunción clínica de TB. Una mayor colaboración entre los programas nacionales contra la TB y el VIH facilitaría la utilización de la prueba Xpert en los pacientes seropositivos con presunción de TB que buscan atención en los centros públicos de atención de salud.

Scale-up of ART in Malawi has reduced case notification rates in HIV-positive and HIV-negative tuberculosis.

Setting: For 30 years, Malawi has experienced a dual epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and tuberculosis (TB) that has recently begun to be attenuated by the scale-up of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Objective: To report on the correlation between ART scale-up and annual national TB case notification rates (CNR) in Malawi, stratified by HIV-positive and HIV-negative status, from 2005 to 2015. Design: A retrospective descriptive ecological study using aggregate data from national reports. Results: From 2005 to 2015, ART was scaled up in Malawi from 28 470 to 618 488 total patients, with population coverage increasing from 2.4% to 52.2%. During this time, annual TB notifications declined by 35%, from 26 344 to 17 104, and the TB CNR per 100 000 population declined by 49%, from 206 to 105. HIV testing uptake increased from 51% to 92%. In known HIV-positive TB patients, the CNR decreased from a high of 1247/100 000 to 710/100 000, a 43% decrease. In known HIV-negative TB patients, the CNR also decreased, from a high of 66/100 000 to 49/100 000, a 26% decrease. Conclusion: TB case notifications have continued to decline in association with ART scale-up, with the decline seen more in HIV-positive than HIV-negative TB. These findings have programmatic implications for national TB control efforts.

Contexte : Pendant 30 ans, le Malawi a connu une double épidémie du virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) et de la tuberculose (TB) qui s'est atténuée récemment avec l'expansion du traitement antirétroviral (TAR).Objectif : Etablir la corrélation entre l'expansion du TAR et les notifications annuelles de cas de TB, stratifiés en fonction de leur statut VIH positif ou négatif, au Malawi, de 2005 à 2015.Schéma : Une étude rétrospective descriptive écologique reposant sur les données agrégées des rapports nationaux.Résultats : De 2005 à 2015, le Malawi a étendu le TAR de 28 470 à 618 488 patients, avec une couverture de la population passant de 2,4% à 52,2%. Pendant ce temps, les notifications annuelles de TB ont décliné de 35%, de 26 344 à 17 104, et le taux de notification des cas de TB par 100 000 population a décliné de 49%, de 206 à 105. L'utilisation du test VIH a augmenté de 51% à 92%. Chez les patients TB-VIH positifs, les taux de notification des cas ont diminué d'un niveau élevé de 1247/100 000 à 710/100 000 (diminution de 43%). Chez les patients TB-VIH négatifs connus, les taux de notification des cas ont également décru d'un taux élevé de 66/100 000 à 49/100 000 (diminution de 26%).Conclusion : Les notifications de cas de TB ont continué à décliner en association avec l'expansion du TAR, avec un déclin davantage constaté chez les patients TB-VIH positifs que chez les patients TB-VIH négatifs. Ces constatations ont des implications pour les programmes nationaux de lutte contre la TB.

Marco de referencia: Durante 30 años se ha presentado en Malawi una epidemia doble de infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) y tuberculosis (TB), que se ha moderado en tiempos recientes gracias a la ampliación de escala de administración del tratamiento antirretrovírico (TAR).Objetivo: Evaluar la relación entre la ampliación de escala del TAR y la tasa anual nacional de notificación de casos de TB, estratificada por la situación frente al VIH, en Malawi del 2005 al 2015.Método: Fue este un estudio retrospectivo descriptivo ecológico a partir de los datos agregados de notificación a escala nacional.Resultados: Del 2005 al 2015 se amplió la escala de administración del TAR en Malawi de 28 470 a 618 488 casos, con un aumento de la cobertura del 2,4% al 52,2% de la población. Durante este período disminuyó un 35% la notificación anual de TB, de 26 344 a 17 104 casos, y un 49% la tasa de notificación, que pasó de 206 por 100 000 habitantes a 105/100 000. La aceptación de la prueba diagnóstica del VIH aumentó del 51% al 92%. En los pacientes positivos frente al VIH, la tasa de notificación de TB disminuyó de 1 247/100 000 a 710/100 000 (disminución del 43%). En los pacientes negativos frente al VIH, las tasas de notificación de TB también disminuyeron de 66/100 000 a 49/100 000 (disminución del 26%).Conclusión: La notificación de casos de TB ha continuado su disminución en paralelo con la ampliación de escala de administración del TAR; la disminución es mayor en los pacientes positivos frente al VIH que en los pacientes negativos. Estos resultados tienen consecuencias programáticas sobre las iniciativas nacionales de control de la TB.

Decline in adverse outcomes and death in tuberculosis patients in Malawi: association with HIV interventions.

Between 2000 and 2012, the annual numbers of patients treated for tuberculosis (TB) in Malawi declined by 28%, from 28 234 to 20 463. During this time, the proportion of TB patients tested for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) increased from 6% to 87%. Most HIV-infected patients received cotrimoxazole preventive therapy, and the proportion receiving antiretroviral therapy increased to 88%. Between 2000 and 2008 there was a significant decline in all adverse outcomes (from 31% to 14%), and particularly in deaths (from 23% to 10%) and loss to follow-up (from 5.2% to 1.9%, P < 0.001). After 2008, there was no decrease in any adverse outcome. Ways to further reduce TB-associated mortality are discussed.

Entre 2000 et 2012, le nombre annuel de patients traités pour tuberculose (TB) au Malawi a décliné de 28%, passant de 28 234 à 20 463. Pendant cette période, la proportion de patients TB testés pour le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) a augmenté de 6% à 87%, la majorité des patients infectés par le VIH a bénéficié d'un traitement préventif par cotrimoxazole et la proportion de patients recevant un traitement antirétroviral est passée à 88%. Entre 2000 et 2008, il y a eu un déclin significatif de toutes les évolutions défavorables (de 31% à 14%), en particulier des décès (de 23% à 10%) et des perdus de vue (de 5,2% à 1,9%; P < 0,001). Après 2008, il n'y a plus eu de diminution des évolutions défavorables. L'article discute des manières de poursuivre la réduction de la mortalité associée à la TB.

Del año 2000 al 2012, el número anual de pacientes tratados por tuberculosis (TB) en Malawi disminuyó un 28%, de 28 234 a 20 463. Durante este período, la proporción de pacientes TB en quienes se practicó la prueba diagnóstica de infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) aumentó del 6% al 87%. La mayoría de los pacientes VIH positivo recibió tratamiento preventivo con cotrimoxazol, y la proporción de pacientes que recibía tratamiento antirretrovírico aumentó al 88%. Del 2000 al 2008 se observó una disminución considerable de todos los desenlaces desfavorables (del 31% al 14%) y sobre todo de las muertes (del 23% al 10%) y las pérdidas durante el seguimiento (del 5,2% al 1,9%; P < 0,001). Después del 2008, no se presentó disminución en ninguno de los desenlaces desfavorables. En el artículo se analizan modalidades que permitan disminuir aun más la mortalidad asociada con la TB.

Tuberculosis in health care workers in a central hospital in Malawi.

A retrospective study was carried out at Lilongwe Central Hospital, Malawi, to determine 1) the tuberculosis case notification rate in health care workers (HCW) in 2001, and 2) whether NTP guidelines were adhered to in diagnosing TB. Of 571 HCWs, 33 (6%) were notified with TB in 2001, giving a TB case notification rate of 5780/100,000. Patient attendants had higher rates of TB than nurses, ward attendants and doctors, but otherwise there were no significant differences between the HCW categories. NTP diagnostic guidelines were not properly followed, particularly in diagnosing smear-negative TB; in HCWs with smear-negative PTB, 64% had no sputum smears examined. The rate of TB in HCWs in a central hospital in Malawi was high, although lack of adherence to guidelines might have resulted in overdiagnosis.

Bloody diarrhoea of adults in Malawi: clinical features, infectious agents, and antimicrobial sensitivities.

In a prospective study, 132 hospital out-patients presenting with bloody diarrhoea ('cases') were evaluated in Malawi, Central Africa; 73 out-patient tuberculosis suspects acted as controls. Most (100/132, 76%) subjects reported an illness lasting < or = 5 d with > 5 bowel actions in the preceding 12 h; 39/132 (30%) reported use of systemic antimicrobial drugs in the preceding week; 57% (74/130) had a body mass index < 20; 4% (5/131) were febrile; and 18/130 (13%) had one or more sign(s) of dehydration. The 73 controls reported no diarrhoea and more systemic antimicrobial drug use (P = 0.0003), but were otherwise comparable to the subjects. All stool samples from controls and 38/124 (31%) from cases were macroscopically normal. Only 32% (40/124) of the cases had blood visible in the stool. Parasitic gut infections were found in 42/124 (34%) cases compared with 1/60 (2%) controls (P < 0.0001). The commonest parasite was Schistosoma mansoni. Bacterial cultures were positive in 32/124 (26%) of the subjects. Shigella dysenteriae (Sd) 1 accounted for 53% (17/32) of these. All bacterial isolates were sensitive in vitro to nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin, while only 18% were sensitive to cotrimoxazole. Sd 1 with significant antimicrobial resistance continues to cause seasonal epidemics of dysentery in Malawi. During these, approximately two-thirds of patients presenting with bloody diarrhoea have no blood visible in the stool. Nalidixic acid remains the drug of choice but its use should be restricted to patients at greatest risk of complicated shigellosis.

Decline in national tuberculosis notifications with national scale-up of antiretroviral therapy in Malawi.

From 2000 to 2012, Malawi scaled up antiretroviral therapy (ART) from <3000 to 404 905 persons living with HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune-deficiency syndrome), representing an ART coverage of 40.6% among those living with HIV. During this time, annual tuberculosis (TB) notifications declined by 28%, from 28 234 to 20 463. Percentage declines in annual TB case notifications were as follows: new TB (26%), recurrent TB (40%), new smear-positive pulmonary TB (19%), new smear-negative pulmonary TB (42%), extra-pulmonary TB (19%), HIV-positive TB (30%) and HIV-negative TB (10%). The decline in TB notifications is associated with ART scale-up, supporting its value in controlling TB in high HIV prevalence areas in sub-Saharan Africa.

De 2000 à 2012, le Malawi a étendu la thérapie antirétrovirale (ART) de <3000 à 404 905 personnes vivant avec le VIH/SIDA (virus de l'immunodéficience humaine/syndrome de l'immunodéficience acquise), aboutissant à une couverture par antirétroviraux de 40,6% parmi les personnes vivant avec le VIH. Durant cette période, la déclaration annuelle de la tuberculose (TB) a chuté de 28%, de 28 234 à 20 463. Les pourcentages de diminution annuelle des déclarations de cas de TB se répartissaient comme suit : nouveaux cas de TB (26%), rechute de TB (40%), nouvelle TB pulmonaire à frottis positif (19%), nouvelle TB pulmonaire à frottis négatif (42%), TB extra-pulmonaire (19%), TB chez un patient VIH positif (30%), TB chez un patient VIH négatif (10%). Un déclin dans la déclaration de la TB est associé à une expansion de l'ART, ce qui témoigne de sa valeur dans la lutte contre la TB dans les zones à prévalence élevée de VIH en Afrique sub-saharienne.

Entre el año 2000 y el 2012, se amplió en Malawi la escala de aplicación del tratamiento antirretrovírico (ART), de menos de 3000 a 404 905 personas con infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) y síndrome de inmunodeficiencia adquirida, con lo cual se alcanzó una cobertura de 40,6% de las personas seropositivas. Durante este tiempo, disminuyó un 28% la tasa anual de notificación de tuberculosis (TB), de 28 234 a 20 463 casos. Se observaron las siguientes proporciones en la disminución de la notificación de casos: 26% en casos nuevos de TB, 40% en recaídas de TB, 19% en casos nuevos de TB pulmonar con baciloscopia positiva; 42% en casos nuevos de TB pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa, 19% en casos de TB extrapulmonar, 30% en casos de TB y seropositividad frente al VIH, y 10% en los casos de TB y seronegatividad frente al VIH. La observación de una disminución de la notificación de casos de TB asociada con la ampliación de escala del ART confirma la utilidad de esta estrategia en el control de la TB en las regiones con alta prevalencia de infección por el VIH en África subsahariana.

Timing of antiretroviral therapy and effects on tuberculosis treatment outcomes in HIV-co-infected patients in Malawi.

SETTING: Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, Blantyre, Malawi. OBJECTIVES: To determine 1) the proportion of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected tuberculosis (TB) patients started on antiretroviral therapy (ART), 2) the timing of ART and 3) the effect of the timing on TB treatment outcomes. DESIGN: A retrospective record review of HIV-infected TB patients registered from January to December 2009. RESULTS: A total of 3376 TB patients were registered, of whom 2665 (79%) were HIV-tested and 2042 (77%) were HIV-infected. A total of 1190 HIV-infected TB patients who were not on ART at the time of starting TB treatment were studied. Of 688 (58%) who started ART, 61% started therapy within 2 months of anti-tuberculosis treatment and 39% started later (≥2 months). Treatment success for patients with TB who started ART within 2 months was higher than for those starting ART later (RR 1.6, 95%CI 1.4-1.8), and death rates were lower (RR 0.25, 95%CI 0.19-0.35). CONCLUSION: Under routine programme conditions in Malawi, a higher proportion of HIV-infected TB patients who started ART did so within 2 months of starting TB treatment, and early ART intervention was associated with better treatment outcomes. This confirms recommendations that co-infected TB patients should start ART early.

Surveillance of tuberculosis in Malawian prisons.

SETTING: The Malawi National Tuberculosis Programme (NTP) has collaborated with the Prison Health Services (PHS) on tuberculosis (TB) control in prisons since 1996. Information on case finding and treatment outcomes is routinely collected, but there has not been any recent countrywide review of these prison data. OBJECTIVES: To determine 1) the number of prisoners registered for TB in 2007, 2) TB treatment outcomes in 2006 and 3) training of prison health care staff in all Malawian prisons. DESIGN: Descriptive study involving a review of 2006 and 2007 data collected by the NTP during surveillance in 2008. RESULTS: In 2007, 278 TB patients were registered in Malawian prisons, representing a TB case notification rate of 835 per 100 000 (higher than that in the general population, at 346/100 000). The treatment success rate for new smear-positive TB cases for 2006 was 73%, lower than the national average of 78%. In all, 52 prison health care staff had received 1 week of training in TB management, usually just after starting work in the prison. CONCLUSIONS: TB case notifications in Malawian prisons were higher than in the general population and treatment outcomes less favourable. The NTP and PHS need better collaboration to improve TB control in Malawian prisons.

Language in tuberculosis services: can we change to patient-centred terminology and stop the paradigm of blaming the patients?

The words 'defaulter', 'suspect' and 'control' have been part of the language of tuberculosis (TB) services for many decades, and they continue to be used in international guidelines and in published literature. From a patient perspective, it is our opinion that these terms are at best inappropriate, coercive and disempowering, and at worst they could be perceived as judgmental and criminalising, tending to place the blame of the disease or responsibility for adverse treatment outcomes on one side-that of the patients. In this article, which brings together a wide range of authors and institutions from Africa, Asia, Latin America, Europe and the Pacific, we discuss the use of the words 'defaulter', 'suspect' and 'control' and argue why it is detrimental to continue using them in the context of TB. We propose that 'defaulter' be replaced with 'person lost to follow-up'; that 'TB suspect' be replaced by 'person with presumptive TB' or 'person to be evaluated for TB'; and that the term 'control' be replaced with 'prevention and care' or simply deleted. These terms are non-judgmental and patient-centred. We appeal to the global Stop TB Partnership to lead discussions on this issue and to make concrete steps towards changing the current paradigm.

Timing and uptake of ART during treatment for active tuberculosis in HIV co-infected adults in Malawi.

SETTING: Uptake of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in patients co-infected with tuberculosis (TB) and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has historically been low in Malawi. In response, the National TB Programme piloted the initiation of ART 2 weeks after initiation of TB treatment in 2008-2009, a change from the prior policy of 2 months. OBJECTIVE: To determine at programme level if earlier initiation of ART in co-infected patients receiving TB treatment will increase the uptake and continuation of ART. DESIGN: A prospective observational pilot programme evaluation using routinely collected monitoring data from the first two sites with integrated TB-HIV services in Malawi. RESULTS: There was wide variability in the ART start time before and after the policy change. Before the policy change, 16% of patients initiated ART by 3 months compared to 24% after the policy change (P < 0.001). The proportion of all co-infected patients on ART increased from 32% before the policy change to 39% after (P < 0.001). Earlier initiation of ART did not increase the occurrence of side effects and did not reduce adherence to TB treatment. CONCLUSION: Earlier initiation of ART in co-infected patients receiving TB treatment improved the uptake and continuation of ART. Malawi ART guidelines in 2011 were changed from initiating ART after 2 months to as soon as possible after starting anti-tuberculosis treatment.