The TyG Index as a Marker of Subclinical Atherosclerosis and Arterial Stiffness in Lean and Overweight Postmenopausal Women.

BACKGROUND: The present study aims to examine the association of the metabolic syndrome (MS) as well as of the triglyceride-glucose index (TyG-Index), a novel marker of insulin resistance, with subclinical atherosclerosis in a cohort of postmenopausal women, stratified according to their body mass index. METHODS: A total of 473 informed-consenting, non-diabetic postmenopausal women, without overt cardiovascular disease, were included in this study. We aimed to compare the association between structural and functional indices of subclinical atherosclerosis (i.e. carotid artery intima-media thickness (IMT), flow-mediated dilation of the brachial artery, pulse wave velocity (PWV)) with the TyG-index or MS, separately for lean and overweight/obese women. RESULTS: The TyG-Index correlated significantly with carotid IMT (r=0.155, p=0.012) and PWV (r=0.157, p=0.013) only in the group of lean women. Multivariate analysis showed that subclinical atherosclerosis was predicted by MS, in the overweight/obese group (OR=2.517, 95% CI: 1.078-5.878, p=0.033), and by the TyG-Index the lean group (OR=3.119, 95% CI: 1.187-8.194, p<0.001). Using a TyG-Index cut-off value of 8.0 in the lean subpopulation, women above the cut-off had 44.1% prevalence of subclinical atherosclerosis compared to 29.4% in women below the cut-off (p=0.043). CONCLUSIONS: The TyG-Index is associated with carotid atherosclerosis and arterial stiffness mainly in lean postmenopausal women, while the MS serves as a better predictor of subclinical atherosclerosis in overweight/obese women. The TyG-Index may prove a useful marker for identifying high-risk women in the normal-weight postmenopausal population.

Free androgen index as a predictor of blood pressure progression and accelerated vascular aging in menopause.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: We aimed to assess the prognostic value of free androgen index (FAI) and its change over time in arterial stiffness progression, endothelial function and hypertension in postmenopausal women. METHODS: Postmenopausal women (n = 180) without clinically overt cardiovascular disease or diabetes were consecutively recruited and followed for a median of 29 months. The main outcome measures were changes over time in endothelial function (FMD), reflected waves, localized and systemic (PWV) arterial stiffness and hypertension. RESULTS: Increased baseline FAI was significantly associated with new onset hypertension (OR for each SD, 2.71, 95% CI 1.14-6.41, p = 0.024), deterioration of pulse wave velocity (PWV) (0.414 m/s per SD), flow-mediated dilation (FMD) (-0.42% per SD), systolic (2.5 mmHg per SD) and pulse pressure progression (2.3 mmHg per SD, p < 0.05 for all). Baseline FAI remained an independent predictor of changes in PWV (p = 0.006), FMD (p = 0.02), peripheral pulse pressure (p = 0.028), transition to new onset hypertension (p = 0.001) and higher BP category (p = 0.012), after adjustment for age, changes in systolic blood pressure, traditional risk factors, vasoactive medication or total testosterone. Baseline FAI improved reclassification for the risk of transition into higher BP category (NRI = 47.5 ± 20.3%, p = 0.02) and abnormal PWV (NRI = 53.4 ± 23.2%, p = 0.021). Similarly, in a subgroup of patients with measured FAI at follow-up, its changes over time predicted changes in PWV, peripheral pulse pressure and hypertension status (p < 0.05 for all). CONCLUSIONS: In apparently healthy postmenopausal women, FAI could be a novel biomarker superior to total testosterone for accelerated vascular aging and hypertension status.

Subclinical atherosclerosis in menopausal women with low to medium calculated cardiovascular risk.

BACKGROUND: The menopausal status is closely related with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Nevertheless, it is still not included in risk stratification by total cardiovascular risk estimation systems. The present study aimed to evaluate the extent of subclinical vascular disorders in young healthy postmenopausal women. METHODS: This cross-sectional study consecutively recruited 120 healthy postmenopausal women without clinically overt CVD or diabetes, aged 41-60 years and classified as not high-risk by the Heartscore (<5%). In addition to risk factors used for Heartscore calculations, years since menopause and associated risk factors (triglycerides (range 37-278 mg/dl), waist circumference (62-114 cm), fasting blood glucose (69-114 mg/dl) and HOMA-IR (0.44-5)) were also assessed. Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity, carotid and femoral intima-media thickness in the abnormal range as well as atheromatous plaques both in carotid and femoral arteries were used to define the presence of subclinical atherosclerosis. RESULTS: Subclinical atherosclerosis and the presence of at least one plaque were identified in 55% and 28% of women, respectively. Subjects with subclinical atherosclerosis had higher age, years since menopause, HOMA-IR and blood pressure. By multivariate analysis years since menopause and systolic blood pressure independently determined subclinical atherosclerosis while 79% of intermediate-risk women (Heartscore 2-4.9%) being in menopause for at least 4 years would be reclassified to a higher risk for the presence of atherosclerosis. CONCLUSION: Subclinical atherosclerosis was highly prevalent in postmenopausal women with low to medium Heartscore. Thus our data suggest that menopausal status and associated risk factors should be additionally weighted in risk calculations, regarding primary prevention strategies in this population.

Arterial stiffness is increased in asymptomatic nondiabetic postmenopausal women with a polycystic ovary syndrome phenotype.

OBJECTIVE: The metabolic dysfunction accompanying the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) may increase the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although menopause per se may be an additional risk factor of CVD, the association between PCOS in postmenopausal women and cardiovascular risk has not been adequately investigated. We aimed to evaluate the effect of PCOS on markers of subclinical atherosclerosis in nondiabetic postmenopausal women. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 286 postmenopausal women with intact ovaries. PCOS phenotype was defined if three of the following were present: insulin resistance, current hyperandrogenism or history of clinical androgen excess, history of infertility, central obesity and history of irregular menses. Traditional CVD risk factors, as well as indices of arterial structure (intima-media thickness, atheromatous plaques presence) and function [flow-mediated dilation, pulse wave velocity (PWV), augmentation index] were compared between women with a PCOS phenotype and the rest of the sample, who served as controls. RESULTS: Women with the PCOS phenotype (N=43) had higher SBP and triglycerides and lower high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol than controls. Mean values of PWV differed significantly between PCOS cases and controls (9.46±1.74 vs. 8.60±1.51 m/s, P=0.001, univariate). Multivariate regression analysis showed that the PCOS phenotype, age and SBP were the only independent predictors of PWV. CONCLUSION: Arterial stiffness is increased in asymptomatic, nondiabetic women with a putative PCOS phenotype, independently of age, BMI or blood pressure. This might present one mechanism through which PCOS increases the risk of CVD and hypertension later in life.

Circulating androgen levels are associated with subclinical atherosclerosis and arterial stiffness in healthy recently menopausal women.

Although increasing evidence supports an association between endogenous sex hormones and cardiovascular disease, the results still remain controversial. This study aims to examine the association between endogenous sex hormones and indices of vascular function and structure. Serum follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estradiol, testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), and Δ4-androstenedione were measured in 120 healthy postmenopausal women aged 41 to 60 years. Possible associations with surrogate markers of subclinical atherosclerosis, arterial stiffness, and endothelial function were investigated. Indices of arterial structure included carotid and femoral intima-media thickness and atheromatous plaques presence. Indices of arterial function included flow-mediated dilation of the brachial artery, carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV), and augmentation index. Total testosterone and free androgen index (FAI) were the most important predictors of common carotid artery intima-media thickness (ß = 0.376 and ß = 0.236, P < .001 and P = .014, respectively). Similarly, FAI was the only significant independent predictor of PWV (ß = 0.254, P = .027) after adjusting for age, smoking, body mass index, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, and blood lipids. Free estrogen index showed a positive association with PWV, independently of age, smoking, and body mass index, but not of homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance and blood lipids. Age-adjusted levels of DHEAS exhibited a significant independent negative association with measures of augmentation index. Follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estradiol, sex hormone-binding globulin, and Δ4-androstenedione were not associated with any of the vascular parameters independently of traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Higher serum testosterone and FAI are associated with subclinical atherosclerosis in healthy recently menopausal women. This association is independent of traditional cardiovascular risk factors or insulin resistance. On the contrary, serum DHEAS exhibits a negative association with arterial stiffness.

High normal thyroid-stimulating hormone is associated with arterial stiffness in healthy postmenopausal women.

OBJECTIVE: Apart from the effects of a dysfunctional thyroid gland on the cardiovascular system, thyroid function within the reference range may have an impact on the vasculature. The present study aimed to evaluate the association between thyroid function and markers of arterial structure and function in euthyroid postmenopausal women. METHODS: The present cross-sectional study recruited 106 healthy postmenopausal women with a mean age of 55.0 years and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels within the laboratory reference range (0.4-4.5 µIU/ml). Anthropometric and biochemical measures as well as blood pressure were determined in each individual. Vascular structure and function were assessed by intima-media thickness, pulse wave velocity (PWV), augmentation index and flow-mediated dilation, respectively. We evaluated the associations between arterial markers and serum TSH, free triiodothyronine, free thyroxin, as well as serum thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin autoantibodies. RESULTS: Mean levels of PWV increased linearly across increasing TSH quartiles (P value = 0.014). Individuals with serum TSH greater than 2.5 µIU/ml had significantly higher values of PWV when compared with individuals with TSH levels below 2.5 µIU/ml (9.68 ±â€Š1.97 vs. 8.54 ±â€Š1.83 m/s; P = 0.030). In multivariate analysis, age, insulin resistance and TSH above 2.5 µIU/ml were the only significant predictors of PWV (TSH, ß-coefficient = 0.222; P = 0.014). No associations were found between the remaining markers and levels of thyroid hormones, whereas thyroid antibodies were not associated with any of the arterial markers. CONCLUSION: Women with TSH levels in the upper reference range have increased arterial stiffness compared to women with lower TSH. The upper limit of normal TSH in postmenopausal women may need re-evaluation with respect to the effects on the vasculature.

Recently postmenopausal women have the same prevalence of subclinical carotid atherosclerosis as age and traditional risk factor matched men.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the prevalence of subclinical atherosclerosis between postmenopausal women and men of similar age early after the onset of menopause. METHODS: In the first part of this cross-sectional study 186 non-diabetic young postmenopausal women (n = 101, menopausal age ≤ 10 years) and men (n = 85) aged 40-60 years without overt CVD were consecutively recruited from the outpatients clinics of an academic hospital. Subclinical carotid atherosclerosis was assessed by high-resolution ultrasonography. The presence of carotid atherosclerosis was defined as either increased carotid intima-media thickness (IMT>0.9 mm) and/or the presence of plaques. In the second part, 1:1 matching for age and traditional risk factors (hyperlipidemia, smoking, hypertension and BMI) was performed between men and women of this cohort resulting in a matched sub-sample of 76 subjects. RESULTS: By multivariate analysis, gender was not an independent determinant of any measure of carotid atherosclerosis. In the matched sub-sample, carotid IMT and the number of segments with atherosclerosis did not significantly differ between women and men (0.734 ± 0.119 mm and 1.47 ± 1.6 versus 0.717 ± 0.138 mm and 1.47 ± 1.5, p = 0.575 and p = 0.999, respectively). Also, the prevalence of increased IMT (60.5% in both genders), carotid plaques and subclinical atherosclerosis (31.6% and 63.2% versus 28.9% and 65.8%, p = 0.803 and p = 0.811, respectively) was similar between men and women. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence and severity of carotid atherosclerosis was similar between men and young postmenopausal women matched for traditional risk factors. Whether these women may be better risk stratified irrespective of gender should be further assessed in prospective studies.