L-dopa increases α-synuclein DNA methylation in Parkinson's disease patients in vivo and in vitro.

BACKGROUND: Increasing gene dosages of α-synuclein induce familial Parkinson's disease (PD); thus, the hypothesis has been put forward that regulation of gene expression, in particular altered α-synuclein gene methylation, might be associated with sporadic PD and could be used as a biological marker. METHODS: We performed a thorough analysis of α-synuclein methylation in bisulfite-treated DNA from peripheral blood of 490 sporadic PD patients and 485 healthy controls and in addition analyzed the effect of levodopa (L-dopa) on α-synuclein methylation and expression in cultured mononuclear cells. RESULTS: α-Synuclein was hypomethylated in sporadic PD patients, correlated with sex, age, and a polymorphism in the analyzed sequence stretch (rs3756063). α-Synuclein methylation separated healthy individuals from sporadic PD with a specificity of 74% (male) and 78% (female), respectively. α-Synuclein methylation was increased in sporadic PD patients with higher l-dopa dosage, and L-dopa specifically induced methylation of α-synuclein intron 1 in cultured mononuclear cells. CONCLUSIONS: α-Synuclein methylation levels depended on disease status, sex, age, and the genotype of rs3756063. The pharmacological action of L-dopa was not limited to the dopamine precursor function but included epigenetic off-target effects. The hypomethylation of α-synuclein in sporadic PD patients' blood already observed in previous studies was probably underestimated because of effect of L-dopa, which was not known previously. The analysis of α-synuclein methylation can help to identify nonparkinsonian individuals with reasonable specificity, which offers a valuable tool for researchers and clinicians.

The Alpha-Synuclein Gene (SNCA) is a Genomic Target of Methyl-CpG Binding Protein 2 (MeCP2)-Implications for Parkinson's Disease and Rett Syndrome.

Mounting evidence suggests a prominent role for alpha-synuclein (a-syn) in neuronal cell function. Alterations in the levels of cellular a-syn have been hypothesized to play a critical role in the development of Parkinson's disease (PD); however, mechanisms that control expression of the gene for a-syn (SNCA) in cis and trans as well as turnover of a-syn are not well understood. We analyzed whether methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2), a protein that specifically binds methylated DNA, thus regulating transcription, binds at predicted binding sites in intron 1 of the SNCA gene and regulates a-syn protein expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and electrophoretic mobility-shift assays (EMSA) were used to confirm binding of MeCP2 to regulatory regions of SNCA. Site-specific methylation and introduction of localized mutations by CRISPR/Cas9 were used to investigate the binding properties of MeCP2 in human SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cells. The significance of MeCP2 for SNCA regulation was further investigated by overexpressing MeCP2 and mutated variants of MeCP2 in MeCP2 knockout cells. We found that methylation-dependent binding of MeCP2 at a restricted region of intron 1 of SNCA had a significant impact on the production of a-syn. A single nucleotide substitution near to CpG1 strongly increased the binding of MeCP2 to intron 1 of SNCA and decreased a-syn protein expression by 60%. In contrast, deletion of a single nucleotide closed to CpG2 led to reduced binding of MeCP2 and significantly increased a-syn levels. In accordance, knockout of MeCP2 in SK-N-SH cells resulted in a significant increase in a-syn production, demonstrating that SNCA is a genomic target for MeCP2 regulation. In addition, the expression of two mutated MeCP2 variants found in Rett syndrome (RTT) showed a loss of their ability to reduce a-syn expression. This study demonstrates that methylation of CpGs and binding of MeCP2 to intron 1 of the SNCA gene plays an important role in the control of a-syn expression. In addition, the changes in SNCA regulation found by expression of MeCP2 variants carrying mutations found in RTT patients may be of importance for the elucidation of a new molecular pathway in RTT, a rare neurological disorder caused by mutations in MECP2.

Much ado about nothing? Off-target amplification can lead to false-positive bacterial brain microbiome detection in healthy and Parkinson's disease individuals.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies suggested the existence of (poly-)microbial infections in human brains. These have been described either as putative pathogens linked to the neuro-inflammatory changes seen in Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) or as a "brain microbiome" in the context of healthy patients' brain samples. METHODS: Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, we tested the hypothesis that there is a bacterial brain microbiome. We evaluated brain samples from healthy human subjects and individuals suffering from PD (olfactory bulb and pre-frontal cortex), as well as murine brains. In line with state-of-the-art recommendations, we included several negative and positive controls in our analysis and estimated total bacterial biomass by 16S rRNA gene qPCR. RESULTS: Amplicon sequencing did detect bacterial signals in both human and murine samples, but estimated bacterial biomass was extremely low in all samples. Stringent reanalyses implied bacterial signals being explained by a combination of exogenous DNA contamination (54.8%) and false positive amplification of host DNA (34.2%, off-target amplicons). Several seemingly brain-enriched microbes in our dataset turned out to be false-positive signals upon closer examination. We identified off-target amplification as a major confounding factor in low-bacterial/high-host-DNA scenarios. These amplified human or mouse DNA sequences were clustered and falsely assigned to bacterial taxa in the majority of tested amplicon sequencing pipelines. Off-target amplicons seemed to be related to the tissue's sterility and could also be found in independent brain 16S rRNA gene sequences. CONCLUSIONS: Taxonomic signals obtained from (extremely) low biomass samples by 16S rRNA gene sequencing must be scrutinized closely to exclude the possibility of off-target amplifications, amplicons that can only appear enriched in biological samples, but are sometimes assigned to bacterial taxa. Sequences must be explicitly matched against any possible background genomes present in large quantities (i.e., the host genome). Using close scrutiny in our approach, we find no evidence supporting the hypothetical presence of either a brain microbiome or a bacterial infection in PD brains. Video abstract.

The human MJD gene: genomic structure and functional characterization of the promoter region.

Machado-Joseph disease (MJD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by expansion of a CAG motif within the translated region of the human MJD (hMJD) gene which has been mapped to chromosome 14q. In this study, the hMJD gene was identified in two overlapping bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones and contained 11 exons resulting in a 6.14 kb transcript. The 5'-flanking region of the hMJD gene included a TATA-less promoter with GC-rich regions, a CCAAT box and multiple potential SP1 binding sites. Luciferase reporter assays performed in neuronal and non-neuronal human cell lines demonstrated a core promoter within the 200 bp region immediately upstream of the putative transcriptional start site (-89 according to the start codon). DNA-protein interactions defined by electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) revealed specific binding of nuclear proteins to the putative core promoter region.

Variants in the 3'UTR of SNCA do not affect miRNA-433 binding and alpha-synuclein expression.

Alpha-synuclein (SNCA) is a major risk gene for Parkinson's disease (PD) and increased SNCA gene dosage results in a parkinsonian syndrome in affected families. Regulatory regions relevant for SNCA expression include the 3' untranslated region (UTR), which among other regulatory elements contains several micro-RNA-binding sites. Interestingly, variants located in the 3' region of SNCA have been associated with PD in two genome-wide association studies. To test whether private mutations in this region contribute to PD, we sequenced the 3'UTR of SNCA in 1285 PD patients and 1120 age/sex-matched healthy controls. We found two rare variants, the one corresponding to the single nucleotide polymorphism rs145304567 and the novel variant c.*1004_1008delTTTTT. Although rs145304567 affects the putative-binding site of microRNA (miRNA) -433, the allele distribution was similar in PD patients and controls, and the expression of SNCA mRNA was not related to the genotype. Furthermore, a regulatory effect of miRNA-433 on SNCA expression levels was not detected.

Inactivation of the mouse Atxn3 (ataxin-3) gene increases protein ubiquitination.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 is a neurodegenerative disease caused by expansion of a polyglutamine domain in the protein ataxin-3 (ATXN3). Physiological functions of ATXN3 presumably include ubiquitin protease and transcriptional corepressor activity. To gain insight into the function of ATXN3 and to test the hypothesis that loss of ATXN3 contributes to the pathology in SCA3 we generated Atxn3 knockout (ko) mice by targeted mutagenesis. Loss of Atxn3 did not affect viability or fertility and Atxn3 ko mice displayed no overt abnormalities. On the accelerating Rotarod Atxn3 ko mice performed as well as wildtype (wt) animals, but reduced exploratory behavior in the open field suggested a sense of heightened anxiety. While no gross deficits were apparent upon morphological examination, we found increased levels of ubiquitinated proteins in Atxn3 ko tissues. Thus Atxn3 ko mice provide the first in vivo reference to the deubiquitinating activity of ATXN3.