Developmental partitioning of SYK and ZAP70 prevents autoimmunity and cancer.

Even though SYK and ZAP70 kinases share high sequence homology and serve analogous functions, their expression in B and T cells is strictly segregated throughout evolution. Here, we identified aberrant ZAP70 expression as a common feature in a broad range of B cell malignancies. We validated SYK as the kinase that sets the thresholds for negative selection of autoreactive and premalignant clones. When aberrantly expressed in B cells, ZAP70 competes with SYK at the BCR signalosome and redirects SYK from negative selection to tonic PI3K signaling, thereby promoting B cell survival. In genetic mouse models for B-ALL and B-CLL, conditional expression of Zap70 accelerated disease onset, while genetic deletion impaired malignant transformation. Inducible activation of Zap70 during B cell development compromised negative selection of autoreactive B cells, resulting in pervasive autoantibody production. Strict segregation of the two kinases is critical for normal B cell selection and represents a central safeguard against the development of autoimmune disease and B cell malignancies.

Normal B cells express ZAP70 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: A link between autoimmunity and lymphoproliferation?

ZAP70 has a prognostic value in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), through altered B-cell receptor signaling, which is important in CLL pathogenesis. A good correlation between ZAP70 expression in CLL cells and the occurrence of autoimmune phenomena has been reported. Yet, the great majority of CLL-associated autoimmune cytopenia is due to polyclonal immunoglobulin (Ig) G synthesized by nonmalignant B cells, and this phenomenon is poorly understood. Here, we show, using flow cytometry, that a substantial percentage of CD5- nonmalignant B cells from CLL patients expresses ZAP70 compared with CD5- B cells from healthy subjects. This ZAP70 expression in normal B cells from CLL patients was also evidenced by the detection of ZAP70 mRNA at single-cell level with polyclonal Ig heavy- and light-chain gene transcripts. ZAP70+ normal B cells belong to various B-cell subsets and their presence in the naïve B-cell subset suggests that ZAP70 expression may occur during early B-cell development in CLL patients and potentially before malignant transformation. The presence of ZAP70+ normal B cells is associated with autoimmune cytopenia in CLL patients in our cohort of patients, and recombinant antibodies produced from these ZAP70+ nonmalignant B cells were frequently autoreactive including anti-platelet reactivity. These results provide a better understanding of the implication of ZAP70 in CLL leukemogenesis and the mechanisms of autoimmune complications of CLL.

Severe combined immunodeficiency in stimulator of interferon genes (STING) V154M/wild-type mice.

BACKGROUND: Autosomal dominant gain-of-function mutations in human stimulator of interferon genes (STING) lead to a severe autoinflammatory disease called STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy that is associated with enhanced expression of interferon-stimulated gene transcripts. OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to analyze the phenotype of a new mouse model of STING hyperactivation and the role of type I interferons in this system. METHODS: We generated a knock-in model carrying an amino acid substitution (V154M) in mouse STING, corresponding to a recurrent mutation seen in human patients with STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy. Hematopoietic development and tissue histology were analyzed. Lymphocyte activation and proliferation were assessed in vitro. STING V154M/wild-type (WT) mice were crossed to IFN-α/ß receptor (IFNAR) knockout mice to evaluate the type I interferon dependence of the mutant Sting phenotype recorded. RESULTS: In STING V154M/WT mice we detected variable expression of inflammatory infiltrates in the lungs and kidneys. These mice showed a marked decrease in survival and developed a severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID) affecting B, T, and natural killer cells, with an almost complete lack of antibodies and a significant expansion of monocytes and granulocytes. The blockade in B- and T-cell development was present from early immature stages in bone marrow and thymus. In addition, in vitro experiments revealed an intrinsic proliferative defect of mature T cells. Although the V154M/WT mutant demonstrated increased expression of interferon-stimulated genes, the SCID phenotype was not reversed in STING V154M/WT IFNAR knockout mice. However, the antiproliferative defect in T cells was rescued partially by IFNAR deficiency. CONCLUSIONS: STING gain-of-function mice developed an interferon-independent SCID phenotype with a T-cell, B-cell, and natural killer cell developmental defect and hypogammaglobulinemia that is associated with signs of inflammation in lungs and kidneys. Only the intrinsic proliferative defect of T cells was partially interferon dependent.

Chronic bacterial infection activates autoreactive B cells and induces isotype switching and autoantigen-driven mutations.

The links between infections and the development of B-cell-mediated autoimmune diseases are still unclear. In particular, it has been suggested that infection-induced stimulation of innate immune sensors can engage low affinity autoreactive B lymphocytes to mature and produce mutated IgG pathogenic autoantibodies. To test this hypothesis, we established a new knock-in mouse model in which autoreactive B cells could be committed to an affinity maturation process. We show that a chronic bacterial infection allows the activation of such B cells and the production of nonmutated IgM autoantibodies. Moreover, in the constitutive presence of their soluble antigen, some autoreactive clones are able to acquire a germinal center phenotype, to induce Aicda gene expression and to introduce somatic mutations in the IgG heavy chain variable region on amino acids forming direct contacts with the autoantigen. Paradoxically, only lower affinity variants are detected, which strongly suggests that higher affinity autoantibodies secreting B cells are counterselected. For the first time, we demonstrate in vivo that a noncross-reactive infectious agent can activate and induce autoreactive B cells to isotype switching and autoantigen-driven mutations, but on a nonautoimmune background, tolerance mechanisms prevent the formation of consequently dangerous autoimmunity.

Synovial fibroblasts promote immunoglobulin class switching by a mechanism involving BAFF.

Fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) are important actors in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) pathogenesis. The autoimmune nature of RA is attributed to autoantibody production, which confers to B cells a predominant role in RA. Several arguments support an induction of class switch recombination (CSR) in RA synovium, causing--in conjunction with somatic hypermutation--the production of potentially pathogenic IgG. To determine whether RA FLSs can directly promote CSR and to analyze the role of external factors like TLR signals and BAFF (B cell activating factor) family cytokines in this FLS-B cell crosstalk, we performed cocultures of blood B cells (from normal individuals or RA patients) with RA FLSs and analyzed CSR induction by quantification of AICDA (encoding activation-induced cytidine deaminase, AID) and switch circular transcripts expression, and IgG secretion. RA FLSs--and to a lesser extent osteoarthritis or control FLSs--promoted CSR, and TLR3 stimulation potentialized it. In addition, induction of CSR by RA FLSs was totally dependent on cell-cell contact in basal conditions, and partially dependent in the case of TLR3 stimulation. Finally, we showed that the mechanism by which RA FLSs induce CSR is mostly BAFF-dependent. Our results support the hypothesis that CSR can be induced outside the ectopic lymphoid structures in RA.

Peripheral B cell abnormalities in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in quiescent phase: decreased memory B cells and membrane CD19 expression.

B lymphocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are hyperactive and produce autoantibodies. Several B cell phenotype characteristics such as the expansion of activated populations, and of a newly identified memory compartment have already been reported. These results are not easy to interpret because of the clinical heterogeneity of SLE, as well as the difficulties to establish homogeneous and well defined groups taking in consideration the activity of the disease and the various therapies. However, although many mediators and mechanisms can contribute to the clinical presentation and subsequent progression of individuals with SLE, several data suggest that some intrinsic B cells abnormalities may be central to the disease process. In this view, we have analysed the phenotype of B cells from 18 patients with quiescent diseases (mean SLEDAI score below 2) and from 11 healthy controls. B cell surface marker expression was determined by flow cytometry. We analysed the main B cell sub-populations. We demonstrate the persistence of plasmocyte-differentiated and -activated B cells even in quiescent patients. However, quiescent patients display a decrease in memory B cells that could reflect the control of their disease. Above all, we describe a lower membrane expression of the CD19 protein on all B cells in every patient compared to controls. This lower CD19 expression is associated with reduced CD45 levels. It is not associated with an evident gene expression alteration and in vitro stimulation restores a control phenotype. These findings suggest certain mechanisms of lupus development.

MyD88 negatively controls hypergammaglobulinemia with autoantibody production during bacterial infection.

A large body of evidence has convincingly shown that Toll-like receptors are necessary sensors for infections with pathogens, but their activation was also suggested to generate autoimmunity. During experimental infections, the lack of these sensors or of their signaling molecules should lead to a deficient immune response. We found out that MyD88, the major adaptor of the Toll/interleukin-1 (Toll/IL-1) receptor signaling pathway, can actually act as a negative regulator of B-cell function in some settings. MyD88-deficient mice infected by Borrelia burgdorferi developed extreme hypergammaglobulinemia compared to wild-type animals, with high levels of immunoglobulin M (IgM) autoantibodies. In vivo, cell transfer experiments and cell blocking assays showed that this phenotype was not linked to the absence of MyD88 in B cells but rather to CD4 T-cell and likely dendritic cell dysfunctions leading to a Th1-to-Th2 cytokine switch. In addition, our results suggest a relative defect in the Ig class switch recombination process, since MyD88 knockout mice developed mostly IgM antibodies. Collectively, these data emphasize the complex role of the Toll/IL-1 receptor pathway in tuning the immune response against infection and avoiding autoimmunity.

Autoantigen, innate immunity, and T cells cooperate to break B cell tolerance during bacterial infection.

Autoantibody production during infections is considered to result from nonspecific activation of low-affinity autoreactive B cells. Whether this can lead to autoimmune disease remains uncertain. We show that chronic infection by Borrelia burgdorferi of Tg animals expressing human rheumatoid factor (RF) B cells (of low or intermediate affinities) in the absence or in the constitutive presence of the autoantigen (represented here by chimeric IgG with human constant region) breaks their state of immunological ignorance, leading to the production of RFs. Surprisingly, this production was more pronounced in intermediate-affinity RF Tg mice co-expressing the autoantigen. This overproduction was mediated by immune complexes and involved synergistic signaling between the B cell receptor and Toll-like receptors and T cell help. These findings indicate that chronic infection can activate autoreactive B cells with significant affinity and creates conditions that can drive them to differentiate into memory cells. Such cells may have some physiological yet undetermined role, but in autoimmune-prone individuals, this scenario may initiate autoimmunity.

Impaired TLR9 responses in B cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.

B cells play a central role in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) pathophysiology but dysregulated pathways leading to a break in B cell tolerance remain unclear. Since Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) favors the elimination of autoreactive B cells in the periphery, we assessed TLR9 function in SLE by analyzing the responses of B cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) isolated from healthy donors and patients after stimulation with CpG, a TLR9 agonist. We found that SLE B cells from patients without hydroxychloroquine treatment displayed defective in vitro TLR9 responses, as illustrated by the impaired upregulation of B cell activation molecules and the diminished production of various cytokines including antiinflammatory IL-10. In agreement with CD19 controlling TLR9 responses in B cells, decreased expression of the CD19/CD21 complex on SLE B cells was detected as early as the transitional B cell stage. In contrast, TLR7 function was preserved in SLE B cells, whereas pDCs from SLE patients properly responded to TLR9 stimulation, thereby revealing that impaired TLR9 function in SLE was restricted to B cells. We conclude that abnormal CD19 expression and TLR9 tolerogenic function in SLE B cells may contribute to the break of B cell tolerance in these patients.

Overexpression of Fkbp11, a feature of lupus B cells, leads to B cell tolerance breakdown and initiates plasma cell differentiation.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a severe systemic autoimmune disease, characterized by multi-organ damages, triggered by an autoantibody-mediated inflammation, and with a complex genetic influence. It is today accepted that adult SLE arises from the building up of many subtle gene variations, each one adding a new brick on the SLE susceptibility and contributing to a phenotypic trait to the disease. One of the ways to find these gene variations consists in comprehensive analysis of gene expression variation in a precise cell type, which can constitute a good complementary strategy to genome wide association studies. Using this strategy, and considering the central role of B cells in SLE, we analyzed the B cell transcriptome of quiescent SLE patients, and identified an overexpression of FKBP11, coding for a cytoplasmic putative peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase and chaperone enzyme. To understand the consequences of FKBP11 overexpression on B cell function and on autoimmunity's development, we created lentiviral transgenic mice reproducing this gene expression variation. We showed that high expression of Fkbp11 reproduces by itself two phenotypic traits of SLE in mice: breakdown of B cell tolerance against DNA and initiation of plasma cell differentiation by acting upstream of Pax5 master regulator gene.

Carabin deficiency in B cells increases BCR-TLR9 costimulation-induced autoimmunity.

The mechanisms behind flares of human autoimmune diseases in general, and of systemic lupus in particular, are poorly understood. The present scenario proposes that predisposing gene defects favour clinical flares under the influence of external stimuli. Here, we show that Carabin is low in B cells of (NZB × NZW) F1 mice (murine SLE model) long before the disease onset, and is low in B cells of lupus patients during the inactive phases of the disease. Using knock-out and B-cell-conditional knock-out murine models, we identify Carabin as a new negative regulator of B-cell function, whose deficiency in B cells speeds up early B-cell responses and makes the mice more susceptible to anti-dsDNA production and renal lupus flare after stimulation with a Toll-like Receptor 9 agonist, CpG-DNA. Finally, in vitro analysis of NFκB activation and Erk phosphorylation in TLR9- and B-cell receptor (BCR)-stimulated Carabin-deficient B cells strongly suggests how the internal defect synergizes with the external stimulus and proposes Carabin as a natural inhibitor of the potentially dangerous crosstalk between BCR and TLR9 pathways in self-reactive B cells.

B cell signature during inactive systemic lupus is heterogeneous: toward a biological dissection of lupus.

Systemic lupus erythematosous (SLE) is an autoimmune disease with an important clinical and biological heterogeneity. B lymphocytes appear central to the development of SLE which is characterized by the production of a large variety of autoantibodies and hypergammaglobulinemia. In mice, immature B cells from spontaneous lupus prone animals are able to produce autoantibodies when transferred into immunodeficient mice, strongly suggesting the existence of intrinsic B cell defects during lupus. In order to approach these defects in humans, we compared the peripheral B cell transcriptomas of quiescent lupus patients to normal B cell transcriptomas. When the statistical analysis is performed on the entire group of patients, the differences between patients and controls appear quite weak with only 14 mRNA genes having a false discovery rate ranging between 11 and 17%, with 6 underexpressed genes (PMEPA1, TLR10, TRAF3IP2, LDOC1L, CD1C and EGR1). However, unforced hierarchical clustering of the microarrays reveals a subgroup of lupus patients distinct from both the controls and the other lupus patients. This subgroup has no detectable clinical or immunological phenotypic peculiarity compared to the other patients, but is characterized by 1/an IL-4 signature and 2/the abnormal expression of a large set of genes with an extremely low false discovery rate, mainly pointing to the biological function of the endoplasmic reticulum, and more precisely to genes implicated in the Unfolded Protein Response, suggesting that B cells entered an incomplete BLIMP1 dependent plasmacytic differentiation which was undetectable by immunophenotyping. Thus, this microarray analysis of B cells during quiescent lupus suggests that, despite a similar lupus phenotype, different biological roads can lead to human lupus.

Memory B cells producing somatically mutated antiphospholipid antibodies are present in healthy individuals.

Antiphospholipid antibodies (aPLs) are associated with thrombosis and recurrent abortions during autoimmune pathologies, but they are also produced in healthy individuals and during infectious diseases. To analyze the possible links between physiologic and pathologic aPLs, it is of importance to characterize normal aPL production. We took advantage of the known tropism of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) for B cells in general, and memory B cells in particular, during primary infectious mononucleosis (IMN) in 3 patients to get access to anticardiolipin (aCL)-producing B cells. Flow cytometry analysis of these cells showed that, depending on the patient, 10% to 60% of immunoglobulin M (IgM) aCL-producing B cells express the CD27 marker of memory B cells. Single cell sorting of aCL B cells, followed by single cell reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplification of their immunoglobulin variable region genes, showed that some of these cells produce mutated forms of aCL antibodies, confirming their memory B-cell origin. Considering that, during primary IMN, EBV infects and expands already pre-existing memory B cells, we conclude that healthy individuals have a discrete pool of aCL memory cells able to produce mutated forms of antibodies. The implications of this new information are discussed in light of different hypotheses regarding the origin of aCL.

A role for membrane IgD in the tolerance of pathological human rheumatoid factor B cells.

Under non-autoimmune conditions, rheumatoid factor (RF) B cells coexist peacefully with their antigen (IgG), or can be transiently activated during secondary immune responses because they can present xenoantigens to specific T cells captured in immune complex form. Such a situation should lead to affinity maturation of RF B cells and potentially dangerous production of high-affinity RF. We used two lines of transgenic mice expressing a somatically mutated pathological human RF in presence (IgM and IgD) or in absence (IgM only) of surface IgD, and confirm that RF B cell tolerance can result from an antigen-induced specific, but incomplete, deletion of naive RF B cells after antigen encounter. This deletion mainly concerns immature, transitional B cells. On the contrary, mature, IgM- and IgD-expressing RF B cells are resistant to such a deletion. These IgM and IgD RF B cells are functional and activable through both B cell receptor dependent (anti-IgM) and independent (LPS) pathways, but they are not fully responsive to human IgG either in vivo or in vitro. Taken together, these results suggest that another mechanism could be involved in the silencing of mature naive IgM and IgD RF B cells.

Pathogenic antiphospholipid antibody: an antigen-selected needle in a haystack.

Antiphospholipid antibodies represent a heterogeneous group of autoantibodies directed against anionic phospholipids (PLs) usually linked to protein cofactors. Their presence during the antiphospholipid syndrome is associated with risks of thrombosis and fetal losses. Among 5 randomly selected monoclonal antiphospholipid antibodies, all originating from a single patient suffering from this autoimmune disease, only 1 induced fetal losses when passively injected into pregnant mice. Its antiphospholipid activity was dependent on annexin A5, and its variable regions contained mainly 3 replacement mutations. To clarify the role of these mutations in the pathogenicity of the antibody, they were in vitro reverted to the germ line configuration. The resulting "germ line" antibody reacted with multiple self-antigens and only partially lost its reactivity against PLs, but it was no more dependent on annexin A5 and, more importantly, was no more pathogenic. This study illustrates that the in vivo antigen-driven maturation process of natural autoreactive B cells can be responsible for pathogenicity.