Neurochemical evidence that the metabolites accumulating in 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency induce oxidative damage in cerebral cortex of young rats.

Isolated 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency (3MCCD) is an autosomal recessive disorder of leucine metabolism biochemically characterized by accumulation of 3-methylcrotonylglycine (3MCG), 3-methylcrotonic acid (3MCA) and 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid. A considerable number of affected individuals present neurological symptoms with or without precedent crises of metabolic decompensation and brain abnormalities whose pathogenesis is poorly known. We investigated the in vitro effects of 3MCG and 3MCA on important parameters of oxidative stress in cerebral cortex of young rats. 3MCG and 3MCA significantly increased TBA-RS and carbonyl formation, indicating that these compounds provoke lipid and protein oxidation, respectively. In contrast, nitric oxide production was not affected by 3MCG and 3MCA. Furthermore, 3MCG- and 3MCA-induced elevation of TBA-RS values was fully prevented by melatonin, trolox and reduced glutathione, but not by the nitric oxide inhibitor N(ω)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester or the combination of catalase plus superoxide dismutase, indicating that reactive oxygen species were involved in the oxidative damage caused by these compounds. We also found that the activity of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase were not altered in vitro by 3MCG and 3MCA. It is therefore presumed that alterations of the cellular redox homeostasis caused by the major metabolites accumulating in 3MCCD may potentially be involved in the pathophysiology of the neurological dysfunction and structural brain alterations found in patients affected by this disorder.

Phytanic acid disturbs mitochondrial homeostasis in heart of young rats: a possible pathomechanism of cardiomyopathy in Refsum disease.

Phytanic acid (Phyt) accumulates in tissues and biological fluids of patients affected by Refsum disease. Although cardiomyopathy is an important clinical manifestation of this disorder, the mechanisms of heart damage are poorly known. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro effects of Phyt on important parameters of oxidative stress in heart of young rats. Phyt significantly increased thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances levels (P < 0.001) and carbonyl formation (P < 0.01), indicating that this fatty acid induces lipid and protein oxidative damage, respectively. In contrast, Phyt did not alter sulfhydryl oxidation. Phyt also decreased glutathione (GSH) concentrations (P < 0.05), an important non-enzymatic antioxidant defense. Moreover, Phyt increased 2',7'-dichlorofluorescin oxidation (DCFH) (P < 0.01), reflecting increased reactive species generation. We also found that the induced lipid and protein oxidative damage, as well as the decreased GSH levels and increased DCFH oxidation provoked by this fatty acid were prevented or attenuated by the reactive oxygen species scavengers melatonin, trolox, and GSH, but not by the nitric oxide inhibitor N: (ω)-nitro-L: -arginine methyl ester, suggesting that reactive oxygen species were involved in these effects. Next, we verified that Phyt strongly inhibited NADH-cytochrome c oxidoreductase (complex I-III) activity (P < 0.001) in heart supernatants, and decreased membrane potential and the NAD(P)H pool in heart mitochondria, indicating that Phyt acts as a metabolic inhibitor and as an uncoupler of the electron transport chain. Therefore, it can be presumed that disturbance of cellular energy and redox homeostasis induced by Phyt may possibly contribute to the cardiomyopathy found in patients affected by Refsum disease.

Chronic postnatal ornithine administration to rats provokes learning deficit in the open field task.

Hyperornithinemia is the biochemical hallmark of hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinuria (HHH) syndrome, an inherited metabolic disease clinically characterized by mental retardation whose pathogenesis is still poorly known. In the present work, we produced a chemical animal model of hyperornithinemia induced by a subcutaneous injection of saline-buffered Orn (2-5 µmol/g body weight) to rats. High brain Orn concentrations were achieved, indicating that Orn is permeable to the blood brain barrier. We then investigated the effect of early chronic postnatal administration of Orn on physical development and on the performance of adult rats in the open field, the Morris water maze and in the step down inhibitory avoidance tasks. Chronic Orn treatment had no effect on the appearance of coat, eye opening or upper incisor eruption, nor on the free-fall righting reflex and on the adult rat performance in the Morris water maze and in the inhibitory avoidance tasks, suggesting that physical development, aversive and spatial localization were not changed by Orn. However, Orn-treated rats did not habituate to the open field apparatus, implying a deficit of learning/memory. Motor activity was the same for Orn- and saline- injected animals. We also verified that Orn subcutaneous injections provoked lipid peroxidation in the brain, as determined by a significant increase of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances levels. Our results indicate that chronic early postnatal hyperornithinemia may impair the central nervous system, causing minor disabilities which result in specific learning deficiencies.

Experimental evidence that methylmalonic acid provokes oxidative damage and compromises antioxidant defenses in nerve terminal and striatum of young rats.

Methylmalonic acidemia and propionic acidemia are organic acidemias biochemically characterized by predominant tissue accumulation of methylmalonic acid (MMA) and propionic acid (PA), respectively. Affected patients present predominantly neurological symptoms, whose pathogenesis is not yet fully established. In the present study we investigated the in vitro effects of MMA and PA on important parameters of lipid and protein oxidative damage and on the production of reactive species in synaptosomes from cerebrum of developing rats. Synaptosomes correspond to nerve terminals that have been used to investigate toxic properties of compounds on neuronal cells. The in vivo effects of intrastriatal injection of MMA and PA on the same parameters and on enzymatic antioxidant defenses, were also studied. MMA-induced in vitro and in vivo lipid peroxidation and protein oxidative damage. Furthermore, the lipid oxidative damage was attenuated or prevented, pending on the doses utilized, by the free radical scavengers α-tocopherol, melatonin and by the NMDA glutamate receptor antagonist MK-801, implying the involvement of reactive species and glutamate receptor activation in these effects. In addition, 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate oxidation was significantly increased in synaptosomes by MMA, reinforcing that reactive species generation is elicited by this organic acid. We also verified that glutathione peroxidase activity was inhibited by intrastriatal MMA injection. In contrast, PA did not induce any significant effect on all parameters examined in vitro and in vivo, implying a selective action for MMA. The present data demonstrate that oxidative stress is induced by MMA in vitro in nerve terminals and in vivo in striatum, suggesting the participation of neuronal cells in MMA-elicited oxidative damage.

2-Methylbutyrylglycine induces lipid oxidative damage and decreases the antioxidant defenses in rat brain.

Short/branched chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (SBCAD) deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder of isoleucine metabolism biochemically characterized by accumulation of 2-methylbutyrylglycine (2MBG) and 2-methylbutyric acid (2MB). Affected patients present predominantly neurological symptoms, whose pathophysiology is not yet established. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro effects of 2MBG and 2MB on important parameters of oxidative stress in cerebral cortex of young rats and C6 glioma cells. 2MBG increased thiobarbituric acid-reactive species (TBA-RS), indicating an increase of lipid oxidation. 2MBG induced sulfhydryl oxidation in cortical supernatants and decreased glutathione (GSH) in these brain preparations, as well as in C6 cells, indicating a reduction of nonenzymatic brain antioxidant defenses. In contrast, 2MB did not alter any of these parameters and 2MBG and 2MB did not affect carbonyl formation (protein damage). In addition, 2MBG-induced increase of TBA-RS levels and decrease of GSH were prevented by free radical scavengers, implying that reactive species were involved in these effects. Furthermore, the decrease of GSH levels caused by 2MBG was not due to a direct oxidative action since this metabolite did not alter sulfhydryl content from a commercial solution of GSH. Nitric oxide production was not altered by 2MBG and 2MB, suggesting that reactive oxygen species possibly underlie 2MBG effects. Finally, we verified that 2MBG did not induce cell death in C6 cells. The present data show that 2MBG induces lipid oxidative damage and reduces the antioxidant defenses in rat brain. Therefore, it may be postulated that oxidative stress induced by 2MBG is involved, at least in part, in the pathophysiology of the brain damage found in SBCAD deficiency.

Pristanic acid promotes oxidative stress in brain cortex of young rats: a possible pathophysiological mechanism for brain damage in peroxisomal disorders.

Pristanic acid (Prist) is accumulated in various peroxisomal disorders characterized by severe neurological dysfunction whose pathogenesis is poorly understood. Since oxidative damage has been demonstrated in brain of patients affected by neurodegenerative disorders, in the present work we investigated the in vitro effects of Prist on important parameters of oxidative stress in cerebral cortex from young rats. Prist significantly increased malondialdehyde levels, reflecting an increase of lipid peroxidation. This effect was totally prevented by the free radical scavenger melatonin, suggesting the involvement of reactive species. Prist also provoked protein oxidative damage, as determined by increased carbonyl formation and sulfhydryl oxidation. Otherwise, it did not alter nitric oxide production, indicating that nitrogen reactive species were not implicated in the lipid and oxidative damage provoked by Prist. Furthermore, the concentration of glutathione (GSH), the major brain non-enzymatic antioxidant defense, was significantly decreased by Prist and this decrease was fully prevented by melatonin and attenuated by α-tocopherol. It is therefore presumed that Prist elicits oxidative stress in the brain probably via reactive oxygen species formation and that this pathomechanism may possibly be involved in the brain damage found in patients affected by peroxisomal disorders where Prist accumulates.

Glycine intrastriatal administration induces lipid and protein oxidative damage and alters the enzymatic antioxidant defenses in rat brain.

AIMS: We investigated the effects of in vivo intrastriatal administration of glycine (Gly), which is found at high concentrations in the brain of patients affected by nonketotic hyperglycinemia (NKH), on important parameters of oxidative stress. MAIN METHODS: Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances values (TBA-RS, lipid peroxidation), carbonyl formation (protein oxidative damage), sulfhydryl content, reduced glutathione concentrations, nitric oxide production and the activities of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, catalase, superoxide dismutase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (antioxidant defenses) were measured in striatum from 30-day-old rats after Gly injection. KEY FINDINGS: Gly administration significantly increased TBA-RS values, implying lipid oxidative damage. Furthermore, Gly-induced increase of TBA-RS was fully prevented by the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801, indicating the involvement of the NMDA glutamate receptor in this effect. Gly injection also induced protein carbonyl formation, as well as elevation of the activities of glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, catalase and superoxide dismutase. In contrast, glutathione levels, sulfhydryl content, nitric oxide production and the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase were not modified by Gly. SIGNIFICANCE: The data shows that Gly in vivo administration causes lipid peroxidation, probably secondary to NMDA stimulation, induces protein oxidation and modulates the activities of important antioxidant enzymes in the striatum. In case these findings can be extrapolated to the human NKH, it is feasible that oxidative stress may be involved in the pathophysiology of the brain injury observed in patients with this neurometabolic disease.

In vitro evidence that D-serine disturbs the citric acid cycle through inhibition of citrate synthase activity in rat cerebral cortex.

The present work investigated the in vitro effects of D-serine (D-Ser) on important parameters of energy metabolism in cerebral cortex of young rats. The parameters analyzed were CO(2) generation from glucose and acetate, glucose uptake and the activities of the respiratory chain complexes I-IV, of the citric acid cycle enzymes citrate synthase, aconitase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, fumarase and malate dehydrogenase and of creatine kinase and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase. Our results show that D-Ser significantly reduced CO(2) production from acetate, but not from glucose, reflecting an impairment of the citric acid cycle function. Furthermore, D-Ser did not affect glucose uptake. We also observed that the activity of the mitochondrial enzyme citrate synthase from mitochondrial preparations and purified citrate synthase was significantly inhibited by D-Ser, whereas the other activities of the citric acid cycle as well as the activities of complexes I-III, II-III, II and IV of the respiratory chain, creatine kinase and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase were not affected by this D-amino acid. We also found that L-serine did not affect citrate synthase activity from mitochondrial preparations and purified enzyme. The data indicate that D-Ser impairs the citric acid cycle activity via citrate synthase inhibition, therefore compromising energy metabolism production in cerebral cortex of young rats. Therefore, it is presumed that this mechanism may be involved at least in part in the neurological damage found in patients affected by disorders in which D-Ser metabolism is impaired, with altered cerebral concentrations of this D-amino acid.

Experimental evidence that ornithine and homocitrulline disrupt energy metabolism in brain of young rats.

Tissue accumulation of ornithine (Orn), homocitrulline (Hcit), ammonia and orotic acid (Oro) is the biochemical hallmark of patients affected by hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinuria (HHH) syndrome, a disorder clinically characterized by neurological symptoms, whose pathophysiology is practically unknown. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro effect of Orn, Hcit and Oro on important parameters of energy metabolism in brain of 30-day-old Wistar rats since mitochondrial abnormalities have been observed in the affected patients. We first verified that Orn and Hcit significantly inhibited the citric acid cycle (inhibition of CO(2) synthesis from [1-(14)C] acetate, as well as aconitase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase activities), the aerobic glycolytic pathway (reduced CO(2) production from [U-(14)C] glucose) and moderately the electron transfer flow (inhibitory effect on complex I-III). Hcit, but not Orn, was also able to significantly inhibit the mitochondrial creatine kinase activity. Furthermore, this inhibition was prevented by GSH, suggesting a possible role of reactive species oxidizing critical thiol groups of the enzyme. In contrast, the other enzyme activities of the citric acid cycle and of the electron transfer chain, as well as synaptic Na(+),K(+)-ATPase were not altered by either Orn or Hcit at concentrations as high as 5.0 mM. Similarly, Oro did not interfere with any of the tested parameters. Taken together, these data strongly indicate that Orn and Hcit compromise brain energy metabolism homeostasis and Hcit also interferes with cellular ATP transfer and buffering. It is therefore suggested that Orn and especially Hcit may be involved in the neurological damage found in patients affected by HHH syndrome.