Hand hygiene for the prevention of infections in neonates.

BACKGROUND: Annually, infections contribute to approximately 25% of the 2.8 million neonatal deaths worldwide. Over 95% of sepsis-related neonatal deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries. Hand hygiene is an inexpensive and cost-effective method of preventing infection in neonates, making it an affordable and practicable intervention in low- and middle-income country settings. Therefore, hand hygiene practices may hold strong prospects for reducing the occurrence of infection and infection-related neonatal death. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effectiveness of different hand hygiene agents for preventing neonatal infection in both community and health facility settings. SEARCH METHODS: Searches were conducted without date or language limits in December 2022 in the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase and Cumulated Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), clinicaltrials.gov and International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) trial registries. The reference lists of retrieved studies or related systematic reviews were screened for studies not identified by the searches.   SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cross-over trials, and cluster trials that included pregnant women, mothers, other caregivers, and healthcare workers who received interventions within either the community setting or in health facility settings, and the neonates  in the neonatal care units or community settings. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane and the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of evidence. Primary outcomes were incidence of suspected infection (author-defined in study) within the first 28 days of life, bacteriologically confirmed infection within the first 28 days of life, all-cause mortality within the first seven days of life (early neonatal death), and all-cause mortality from the 8th to the 28th day of life (late neonatal death). MAIN RESULTS: Our review included six studies: two RCTs, one cluster-RCT, and three cross-over trials. Three studies involved 3281 neonates; the remaining three did not specify the actual number of neonates included in their study. Three studies involved 279 nurses working in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). The number of nurses included was not specified by one study. A cluster-RCT included 103 pregnant women of over 34 weeks gestation from 10 villages in a community setting (sources of data: 103 mother-neonate pairs) and another community-based study included 258 married pregnant women at 32 to 34 weeks of gestation (the trial reported adverse events on 258 mothers and 246 neonates). Studies examined the effectiveness of different hand hygiene practices for the incidence of suspected infection (author-defined in study) within the first 28 days of life. Three studies were rated as having low risk for allocation bias,  two studies were rated as unclear risk, and one was rated as having high risk. One study was rated as having a low risk of bias for allocation concealment,  one study was rated as unclear risk, and four werw rated as having high risk. Two studies were rated as having low risk for performance bias and two were rated as having low risk for attrition bias.  One class of agent versus another class of agent: 2% chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) compared to alcohol hand sanitiser (61% alcohol and emollients) For this comparison, no study assessed the effect of the intervention on the incidence of suspected infection within the first 28 days of life. Two percent chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) probably reduces the risk of all infection in neonates compared to 61% alcohol hand sanitiser in regard to the incidence of all bacteriologically confirmed infection within the first 28 days of life (RR 0.79, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.66 to 0.93; 2932 participants, 1 study; moderate-certainty evidence), number needed to treat for an additional beneficial outcome (NNTB): 385. The adverse outcome was reported as mean self-reported skin change and mean observer-reported skin change. There may be little to no difference between the effects of 2% CHG on nurses' skin compared to alcohol hand sanitiser, based on very low-certainty evidence for mean self-reported skin change (mean difference (MD) -0.80, 95% CI -1.59 to 0.01; 119 participants, 1 study) and on mean observer reported skin change (MD -0.19, CI -0.35 to -0.03; 119 participants, 1 study), respectively. We identified no study that reported on all-cause mortality and other outcomes for this comparison. None of the included studies assessed all-cause mortality within the first seven days of life nor the duration of hospital stay. One class of agent versus two or more other classes of agent: CHG compared to plain liquid soap + hand sanitiser We identified no studies that reported on our primary and secondary outcomes for this comparison except for author-defined adverse events. We are very uncertain whether plain soap plus hand sanitiser is better than CHG for nurses' skin based on very low-certainty evidence (MD -1.87, 95% CI -3.74 to -0.00; 16 participants, 1 study; very low-certainty evidence).  One agent versus standard care: alcohol-based handrub (hand sanitiser) versus usual care The evidence is very uncertain whether alcohol-based handrub is better than 'usual care' in the prevention of suspected infections, as reported by mothers (RR 0.98, CI 0.69 to 1.39; 103 participants, 1 study, very low-certainty evidence). We are uncertain whether alcohol-based hand sanitiser is better than 'usual care' in reducing the occurrence of early and late neonatal mortality (RR 0.29, 95% CI 0.01 to 7.00; 103 participants, 1 study; very low-certainty evidence) and (RR 0.29, CI 0.01 to 7.00; 103 participants, 1 study; very low-certainty evidence), respectively. We identified no studies that reported on other outcomes for this comparison. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: We found a paucity of data that would allow us to reach meaningful conclusions pertaining to the superiority of one form of antiseptic hand hygiene agent over another for the prevention of neonatal infection. Also, the sparse available data were of moderate- to very low-certainty. We are uncertain as to the superiority of one hand hygiene agent over another because this review included very few studies with very serious study limitations.

Relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and inflammatory cytokines in Nigerian children with asthma.

Background: Childhood asthma involves a network of mutually interacting inflammatory mediators and cytokines. The influence of serum vitamin D (an immunomodulatory agent) on these cytokines is poorly understood. This study sets out to determine the relationship between serum T-helper cells type 1 cytokines (Interleukins ILs-1ß, 2, 6, 8 and 10), type 2 cytokines (ILs 3, 4,5,9,13), ILs-12, 17 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) in Nigerian children with asthma.Methods: Children with physician-diagnosed asthma and non-asthmatics aged 2-15 years were consecutively recruited at a tertiary center in Nigeria. Serum 25-OHD and cytokines were assayed using chromatography method and association between these parameters determined.Results: A total of 180 children (90 for each group; mean age 7.5 ± 3.9 years; M:F 1.9:1) were recruited. Fifty-six (76.7%) asthmatics had mild intermittent form and symptoms were sub-optimally controlled in 16 (21.9%). The mean (SD) serum Vitamin D was lower in children with asthma (38.8 ± 17.0 ng/ml vs. 45.5 ± 16.6 ng/ml vs. p = 0.023). Also more proportion of children with asthma had suboptimal serum vitamin D level (26.0% vs. 8.8%; p = 0.022). Deficient vitamin D state was associated with higher serum Th1 and Th2 cytokines compared to insufficient state, but the highest cytokine levels were observed in normal vitamin D state. There was significant positive correlation between serum vitamin D and Th1 cytokines IL-2 and IL-8 as well as Th2 cytokines (ILs-3, 4, 5 and 9), but negative correlation with IL-13Conclusions: Serum Vitamin D and cytokines were lower in a sample of Nigerian children with asthma than controls. Vitamin D status was not related to asthma severity and control. Serum 25-OHD seems to have a non-linear relationship with Th1 and Th2 cytokines in Nigerian asthmatics.

Hand hygiene for the prevention of infections in neonates.

This Cochrane Review has been withdrawn from publication. Errors were identified in the data extraction process and in the reporting of results, and as such the findings of the review may not be reliable. The authors and the Cochrane Neonatal Co-ordinating Editor agreed to withdraw the review, following an internal investigation. The authors are undertaking a full revision of this Cochrane Review, with the intention of publishing a new version.

Hand hygiene for the prevention of infections in neonates.

BACKGROUND: Annually, infections contribute to approximately 25% of the 2.8 million neonatal deaths worldwide. Over 95% of sepsis-related neonatal deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries. Hand hygiene is an inexpensive and cost-effective method of preventing infection in neonates, making it an affordable and practicable intervention in low- and middle-income settings. Therefore, hand hygiene practices may hold strong prospects for reducing the occurrence of infection and infection-related neonatal death. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effectiveness of different hand hygiene agents for preventing neonatal infection in community and health facility settings. SEARCH METHODS: We used the standard search strategy of Cochrane Neonatal to search the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL; 2019, Issue 5), in the Cochrane Library; MEDLINE via PubMed (1966 to 10 May 2019); Embase (1980 to 10 May 2019); and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (1982 to 10 May 2019). We also searched clinical trials databases and the reference lists of retrieved articles for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-randomised trials. Searches were updated 1 June 2020. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included RCTs, cross-over trials, and quasi-RCTs that included pregnant women, mothers, other caregivers, and healthcare workers who received interventions within the community or in health facility settings DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane and the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of evidence. Primary outcomes were incidence of (study author-defined) suspected infection within the first 28 days of life, bacteriologically confirmed infection within the first 28 days of life, all-cause mortality within the first seven days of life (early neonatal death), and all-cause mortality from the 8th to the 28th day of life (late neonatal death). MAIN RESULTS: Our review included five studies: one RCT, one quasi-RCT, and three cross-over trials with a total of more than 5450 neonates (two studies included all neonates but did not report the actual number of neonates involved). Four studies involved 279 nurses working in neonatal intensive care units and all neonates on admission. The fifth study did not clearly state how many nurses were included in the study. Studies examined the effectiveness of different hand hygiene practices for the incidence of (study author-defined) suspected infection within the first 28 days of life. Two studies were rated as low risk for selection bias, another two were rated as high risk, and one study was rated as unclear risk. One study was rated as low risk for allocation bias, and four were rated as high risk. Only one of the five studies was rated as low risk for performance bias. 4% chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) compared to plain liquid soap We are uncertain whether plain soap is better than 4% chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) for nurses' skin based on very low-certainty evidence (mean difference (MD) -1.75, 95% confidence interval (CI) -3.31 to -0.19; 16 participants, 1 study; very low-certainty evidence). We identified no studies that reported on other outcomes for this comparison. 4% chlorhexidine gluconate compared to triclosan 1% One study compared 1% w/v triclosan with 4% chlorhexidine gluconate and suggests that 1% w/v triclosan may reduce the incidence of suspected infection (risk ratio (RR) 1.04, 95% CI 0.19 to 5.60; 1916 participants, 1 study; very low-certainty evidence). There may be fewer cases of infection in the 1% w/v triclosan group compared to the 4% chlorhexidine gluconate group (RR 6.01, 95% CI 3.56 to 10.14; 1916 participants, 1 study; very low-certainty evidence); however, we are uncertain of the available evidence. We identified no study that reported on all-cause mortality, duration of hospital stay, and adverse events for this comparison. 2% CHG compared to alcohol hand sanitiser (61% alcohol and emollients) We are uncertain whether 2% chlorhexidine gluconate reduces the risk of all infection in neonates compared to 61% alcohol hand sanitiser with regards to the incidence of all bacteriologically confirmed infection within the first 28 days of life (RR 2.19, 95% CI 1.79 to 2.69; 2932 participants, 1 study; very low-certainty evidence) in the 2% chlorhexidine gluconate group, but the evidence is very uncertain.   The adverse outcome was reported as mean visual scoring on the skin. There may be little to no difference between the effects of 2% CHG on nurses' skin compared to alcohol hand sanitiser based on very low-certainty evidence (MD 0.80, 95% CI 0.01 to 1.59; 118 participants, 1 study; very low-certainty evidence). We identified no study that reported on all-cause mortality and other outcomes for this comparison. None of the included studies assessed all-cause mortality within the first seven days of life nor duration of hospital stay.  AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: We are uncertain as to the superiority of one hand hygiene agent over another because this review included very few studies with very serious study limitations.

Serum Zinc, Selenium and Total Antioxidant Contents of Nigerian Children with Asthma: Association with Disease Severity and Symptoms Control.

BACKGROUND: Micronutrients and antioxidants may ameliorate oxidative stress. This study aimed to determine the serum Zinc (Zn), Selenium (Se) and Total Antioxidant Contents (TAC) of Nigerian children with asthma and relate these to disease severity and symptoms control. METHODS: Children aged 2-15 years with asthma and age and sex matched controls were consecutively recruited. The children's serum Zn, Se and TAC were assayed and compared. RESULTS: Eighty children each with asthma and controls participated in the study. Serum Zn (71.0 ± 30.3 µg/dl vs. 84.2 ± 31.7 µg/dl; p = 0.008), Se (67.3 ± 29.8 µg/l vs. 80.0 ± 31.7 µg/l; p = 0.033) and TAC [median (interquartile range) 5.2 (3.8-6.8) ng/dl vs. 6.2 (4.3-8.0) ng/dl; p = 0.019] were lower in children with asthma. Serum Se (65.7 ± 29.1 µg/l vs. 92.4 ± 28.6 µg/l; p = 0.001) was lower in those with moderate/severe than mild disease, but no association with symptoms control (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Micronutrient supplementation may be beneficial in Nigerian children with asthma as they have relatively lower antioxidant micronutrients than nonasthmatics.

Factors Influencing the Academic Performance of Children with Sickle Cell Anaemia in Ekiti, South West Nigeria.

Background: There is a paucity of information on factors that influence the school performance of children with sickle cell anaemia (SCA) in Nigeria, despite her huge burden of the disease. Methods: In total, 101 children with SCA were recruited at a paediatric clinic in Nigeria. Their socio-demographic-matched classmates were the controls. Academic performance and cognitive functioning were obtained from school reports and Ziler's Draw-a-Person Test, respectively. Factors influencing the academic performance were determined. Results: Children with SCA had higher rates of school absence and lower haemoglobin concentration (p < 0.05). There was no difference in overall school performance between children with SCA and controls (59.0 vs. 60.6%; p = 0.256). School absenteeism > 1 week independently predicts poor school performance among the study participants (odds ratio = 15.71; 95% confidence interval = 5.93-41.66; p =0.000). Most SCA children with poor performance were absent from school for > 1 week. Conclusion: There is need to address causes of school absenteeism among children with SCA.

Prevalence and factors associated with exercise-induced bronchospasm among rural school children in Ilesa, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) assessed using changes in peak expiratory flow rates (PEFRs) to free range exercise is a relatively cheap way of screening for asthma in resource-poor centres where children with asthma are often undiagnosed and poorly managed. This study sets out to determine the prevalence and factors associated with EIB among rural schoolchildren in Ilesa, Nigeria. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Children aged 8-16 years from two middle schools in rural Ilesa were selected by multistage sampling. Their sociodemographic characteristics and personal/family history of asthma and allergies were obtained. The children had their PEFR measured before, 5, 10 and 15 min after 6-8 min of free running exercise to achieve 80% of their maximal pulse rate. EIB was defined as change in PEFR expressed as a percentage of the pre-exercise value ≥15%. The prevalence and factors associated with EIB were determined. RESULTS: The mean (standard deviation) age of the 250 study participants was 12.5 (1.5) years (M: F 0.9:1) None of the children had previously been diagnosed with asthma. The prevalence of EIB was 9.2%, 6.4% and 4.0% at 5, 10 and 15 min post-exercise, respectively. Household poultry birds, personal history of allergies, wheeze in the past 12 months and family history of asthma were associated with EIB (P < 0.05); only wheezing in the past 12 months independently predicted EIB (odds ratio = 6.343; 95% confidence interval = 2.040-8.798; P= 0.020). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of EIB among rural schoolchildren in Ilesa was 9.2%. EIB was associated with the history of allergies and wheeze and presence of household poultry birds. We recommend routine screening of these children for early diagnosis and good asthma symptom control.

Pattern of Clinical and Laboratory Presentation of Cerebral Malaria among Children in Nigeria.

Introduction: Cerebral malaria (CM) is the most lethal form of severe malaria with high case fatality rates. Overtime, there is an inherent risk in changing pattern of presentation of CM which, if the diagnosis is missed due to these changing factors, may portend a poor outcome. Variations in the pattern of clinic-laboratory presentations also make generalization difficult. This study was, therefore, set out to report the pattern of clinical and laboratory presentation of CM. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study among children aged 6 months to 14 years admitted with a diagnosis of CM as defined by the World Health Organization criteria. A pretested pro forma was filled, and detailed neurological examination and laboratory (biochemical, microbiology, and hematology) investigations were done. P <5% was considered statistically significant. Results: Sixty-four children were recruited with a mean age of 34.9 ± 24.9 months and a male-to-female ratio of 1.9:1. There were 87.5% of under-five children. Fever (96.9%) was the major presenting feature closely followed by convulsions (92.2%). Convulsions were mainly generalized (94.9%) and multiple (76.5%). Profound coma (Blantyre coma score of 0) was present in 12.5% of cases, and the leading features on examination were fever (84.4%) and pallor (75.0%). Retinal vessel whitening (48.4%) was the most common funduscopic abnormality. Metabolic acidosis (47.9%), severe anemia (14.1%), hyperglycemia (17.2%), and hypoglycemia (7.8%) were seen among the children. Few (1.6%) had hyperparasitemia and bacteremia (3.2%). Conclusion: Early recognition of the clinical presentation and prompt management may improve the outcome of cerebral malaria.

Serum Micronutrients as related to Childhood Pneumonia Severity and Outcome in a Nigerian Health Facility.

INTRODUCTION: Micronutrients are essential minerals and vitamins needed for optimal health. There are however conflicting reports about the roles of micronutrients in severity and outcomes of childhood pneumonia. This study aims to determine the socio-demographic and serum micronutrients - Zinc (Zn), Selenium (Se), Vitamins (Vit) A, C and E status of Nigerian children with or without pneumonia and relate these to pneumonia severity and outcome. METHODOLOGY: Children aged two months to 14 years with severe and non-severe pneumonia were recruited with age and sex-matched controls over 12 month period in a Nigerian tertiary health centre. Relevant history and serum micronutrients were compared in the two groups and related to pneumonia severity and length of hospitalisation (LOH). RESULTS: One hundred and forty-four children (72 for each group) were recruited with median (IQR) age 1.6 (0.6 - 4.0) years and fifty-six (38.8%) had severe pneumonia. Pneumonia incidence was associated with undernutrition, inappropriate immunisation and Zn deficiency (p < 0.05). Hypovitaminosis A [60.8(22.2)µg/dl vs. 89.5(34.7)µg/dl; p < 0.001], low serum Zn [71.6(32.5)µg/dl vs. 92.6(24.6)µg/dl; p=0.019] and indoor air pollution (IAP) were associated with pneumonia severity. However, only IAP (OR = 4.529; 95%CI 1.187-17.284; p=0.027) and Zn deficiency (OR=6.144; 95%CI 1.157-32.617; p=0.033) independently predicted severe pneumonia. No significant correlation between serum micronutrients and LOH. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to IAP and low serum micronutrients particularly Zn and Vit A were associated with pneumonia incidence and severity in Nigerian children. Routine micronutrient supplementation may assist to reduce the burden of childhood pneumonia in developing countries.

Prevalence, density and predictors of malaria parasitaemia among ill young Nigerian infants.

INTRODUCTION: infants in the first six months of life are relatively protected from malaria. Emerging reports from endemic regions however are showing increasing malaria susceptibility in this age group. This study set out to determine the prevalence, parasite density and predictive factors for malaria parasitaemia in ill young infants at the Wesley Guild Hospital (WGH), Ilesa, Nigeria. METHODS: ill infants aged one to six months were consecutively recruited over an 11-month period in a hospital based cross-sectional study. History of illness, sociodemographic and perinatal history were obtained; clinical examination and results of venous blood for thick and thin film malaria parasite examinations were recorded and analyzed. RESULTS: the mean (SD) age of the 350 infants was 3.4 (1.6) months with male: female (M: F) of 1.2: 1. The prevalence of malaria parasitaemia (all plasmodium falciparum) was 19.1% while parasite density ranged from 24.0 to 400,000 parasites/µl, median (IQR) 900 (250-4,588)/µl. Sixteen (4.6%) had heavy malaria parasitaemia (>5000/µl). Low social class (OR=2.457; 95%CI 1.404-4.300; p=0.002), suboptimal antenatal care (OR=2.226; 95%CI 1.096-4.522; p=0.027), low birth weight infants (OR=4.818; 95%CI 2.317-10.018; p=<0.001) and injudicious use of haematinics (OR=3.192; 95%CI1.731-5.886; p=<0.001) were predictors of malaria parasitaemia among the infants. CONCLUSION: one-in-five ill young infants had malaria parasitaemia with heavy parasitaemia in 23.8% of infected infants. Malaria parasitaemia was associated with modifiable factors, high index of suspicion in endemic region and optimal maternal and child care services may assist to reduce the burden of malaria in this age group.

Asthma co-morbidities in Nigerian children: prevalence, risk factors and association with disease severity and symptoms control.

INTRODUCTION: Prompt recognition and management of co-morbidities is an important step in ensuring optimal childhood asthma symptoms control. This study sets out to determine the prevalence, predictive factors and association of co-morbidities with asthma severity, lung functions and symptoms control in Nigerian children. METHODS: Children (aged 2 to 15 years) with physician-diagnosed asthma at the Wesley Guild Hospital, Nigeria were consecutively recruited. Asthma co-morbidities, severity and levels of symptoms control were assessed using standard definitions. Lung functions of children ≥ 6 years were also measured. Factors predictive of asthma co-morbidities and association of co-morbid conditions with asthma severity, lung functions and symptoms control were determined using univariate and multivariate analyses. RESULTS: A total of 186 children (male: female 1.4:1) were recruited and the majority (81.0%) had mild intermittent asthma. Forty (21.5%) had suboptimal symptoms control and 112 (60.2%) had associated co-morbidities. Allergic rhinitis and/or conjunctivitis (41.4%) were the most common co-morbidities. Predictors of concomitant presence of allergic rhinitis among the children were older age group ≥ 6 years (OR = 2.488; 95%CI 1.250-4.954; p = 0.036) and lack of exclusive breastfeeding (OR = 2.688; 95%CI 1.199 -5.872; p = 0.020) while obesity/overweight (OR = 6.300; 95%CI 2.040-8.520; p = 0.003) and Allergic rhinitis (OR = 2.414; 95%CI 1.188-6.996; p = 0.049) were determinants of persistent asthma. Suboptimal symptoms control was associated with having concomitant allergic rhinitis (p = 0.018), however no comorbid condition predicted lung function impairment. CONCLUSION: About two-thirds of children with asthma had co-morbidities and allergic rhino-conjunctivitis was the most common. School age group and early introduction to breast milk substitutes predict the presence of these co-morbidities which also affect asthma severity and control.

Relationship between serum insulin and point-of-admission blood glucose of ill neonates at a tertiary health facility in Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION: Optimal glucose metabolism is important in neonatal survival especially in the first days of life. Insulin play a significant role in maintaining blood glucose homeostasis. This study set out to determine the serum insulin levels of ill neonates as related to their point-of-admission blood glucose estimation at the Wesley Guild Hospital, Ilesa, Nigeria. METHODS: Three hundred babies took part in the study. Blood glucose and serum insulin levels were assayed at admission using Accu-Chek Active glucometer(R) and Accu-Ɔ-Bind ELISA Microwells(R) respectively. Hyperglycaemia was defined as blood glucose ≥7mmol/L and hypoglycaemia as blood glucose <2.2mmol/L. RESULTS: The median (IQR) age of the babies was 10.0 (0.5 - 70.0) hours with male to female ratio of 1.5:1. Seventy-four (24.7%) were preterms and 35 (11.7%) were small-for-gestational age. The mean (SD) blood glucose level of the babies was 4.1(2.1) mmol/L with a range of 0.6-13.4mmol/L. Hyperglycaemia and hypoglycaemia were observed in 18(6.0%) and 40(13.3%) babies respectively. The median (IQR) serum insulin level was 9.8(3.0-35.3) µIU/ml. There was weak positive correlation between serum insulin and blood glucose levels of the babies (r = 0.197, p = 0.001). Birth asphyxia was associated with lower serum insulin, while probable sepsis with relatively higher levels. CONCLUSION: Serum insulin level increases with increasing blood glucose in ill Nigerian babies at presentation to the hospital. Babies with asphyxia and sepsis particularly tend to have abnormal serum insulin at admission. Hyperinsulinaemia in ill babies may connote a compensatory mechanism to normalise abnormal blood glucose rather than playing significant role in its aetio-pathogenesis.

Determinants of severe exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in Nigerian children with asthma.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Asthmatics with severe exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) are at high risk of exacerbations. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence, phenotypic, and laboratory determinants of severe EIB in Nigerian children with asthma. METHODS: Children with controlled asthma (n = 101) underwent characterization and free-running exercise bronchoprovocation at a center in Nigeria. Lung function was measured before, then 5, 10, 15, and 30 minutes after 6 to 8 minutes exercise. Severe EIB was defined as ≥50% decrease in forced expired volume in 1 second (FEV1 ) from preexercise. Serum vitamin D and total antioxidant capacity were measured chromatographically. Factors predicting severe EIB were tested by logistic regression. RESULT: The sample was enriched in children with corticosteroid-naïve, mild intermittent asthma (71%). Thirteen percent had no EIB, 22% had severe and 65% nonsevere EIB. Children with severe EIB had higher preexercise FVC (105% vs 96%; P = .03) and FEV1 (98% vs 90%; P = .07), greater obesity (13.6% vs 1.3%; P = .02), more allergic rhinitis (AR) (63.6% vs 35.4%; P = .03), but less exposure to household pets (31.8% vs 72.2%; P = .003) compared to children with nonsevere EIB. Significant determinants (odds ratios/confidence intervals) for severe EIB were obesity = 12.3 (1.2-125.1), AR = 3.18 (1.19-8.52), blood eosinophilia = 1.005 (1.001-1.009), and hypovitaminosis D = 0.87 (0.81-0.93). CONCLUSION: In Nigerian children with asthma, severe EIB is common and associated with remediable comorbidities including type 2 pattern inflammation and vitamin D deficiency.

Acute chest syndrome in sickle cell anaemia: higher serum levels of interleukin-8 and highly sensitive C-reactive proteins are associated with impaired lung function.

BACKGROUND: Sickle cell anaemia (SCA) is a chronic inflammatory disorder with multiple organ manifestations including acute and long-term pulmonary dysfunction. AIMS/OBJECTIVES: To assess lung function of children with SCA and determine the possible role of acute chest syndrome (ACS), serum inflammatory cytokines, highly sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), leucocytes and 25-hydroxyvitamin D on the development of impaired lung function. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Lung function of 76 children with SCA was determined by spirometer and classified into normal or impaired. Sociodemographic, clinical, haematological, biochemical and immunological data of the two groups were compared by univariate and multivariate analyses. RESULTS: Fifty (65.8%) patients had impaired lung function, comprising of 30.3%, 3.9% and 31.6% with restrictive, obstructive and mixed disease patterns, respectively. Children with previous ACS were 3.6 times more likely to have impaired lung function than those without ACS (82.1% vs 56.3%, p = 0.02, OR 3.6, 95% CI 1.2-10.8). Interleukin (IL)-8 and hs-CRP were significantly higher in patients with impaired lung function (p = 0.02 and <0.001, respectively). Using logistic regression, previous ACS (OR 5.8, 95% CI 1.1-5.8, p = 0.03) and higher serum IL-8 levels (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.0-8.0, p = 0.02) independently predicted the presence of abnormal lung function. CONCLUSIONS: Lung dysfunction, predominantly restrictive pattern, is common in SCA and is associated with previous ACS and alterations in immunological markers, especially serum IL-8 and hs-CRP. ABBREVIATIONS: ACS: acute chest syndrome; CBT: chronic blood transfusion; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FEV1: forced expiratory volume in 1 s; FVC: forced vital capacity; HPLC: high-density liquid chromatography; hs-CRP: highly sensitive C-reactive proteins; HU: hydroxyurea; IL: Interleukin; PEFR: peak expiratory flow rate; SEM: standard error of the mean; TLC: total lung capacity; 25-OHD: 25-hydroxyvitamin D; VOC: vaso-occlusive crisis; WGH: Wesley Guild Hospital.

Epidemiology, triggers, and severity of childhood asthma in Ilesa, Nigeria: Implications for management and control.

BACKGROUND: Knowledge about childhood asthma in a locality will assist clinicians to adequately manage the condition. This study set out to report the epidemiology, triggers of exacerbation, comorbid conditions, and severity of childhood asthma at a tertiary health facility in Nigeria and the implication of these, in management and symptoms control. METHODS: Over a 15-month study period, children (aged <15 years) with physician-diagnosed asthma were consecutively recruited at the pediatric chest clinic of the hospital. Sociodemographic history, triggers, and comorbidities in the children were recorded. The severity and level of symptoms control were determined using Global Initiative for Asthma criteria. The children were examined and had lung function test. Appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data obtained. RESULTS: A total of 110 children were recruited for the study with an overall male preponderance 1.6:1, however, more adolescent females than males were observed. The ages of the children ranged from 10 months to 14 years with mean (standard deviation) of 6.4 (3.9) years. The median (interquartile range) age at diagnosis was 2.5 (1.5-6.0) years. The comorbidities were allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (45.5%), atopic dermatitis (10.9%), and overweight/obesity (7.3%). The recognizable triggers of exacerbations were respiratory tract infections (RTIs) seen more in preschool than school age children (χ2 = 6.225; P = 0.031), exercise, dust, and fumes. Mild intermittent asthma (82.7%) was the most common forms, 13 (25.0%) of the children who had Spirometry had obstructive ventilatory pattern and 17.3% had suboptimal asthma control. CONCLUSION: The majority of children with asthma at the Wesley Guild Hospital, Ilesa were school age children, however, 10% were <2 years and most asthmatics (72.7%) were diagnosed before age five. RTI is a major trigger of exacerbation and more than one-half had other allergic conditions which should be looked for and managed to ensure successful asthma management.

Factors associated with childhood asthma control in a resource-poor center.

INTRODUCTION: Optimal asthma control is a major aim of childhood asthma management. This study aimed to determine factors associated with suboptimal asthma control at the pediatric chest clinic of a resource-poor center. METHODS: Over a 12-month study period, children aged 2-14 years with physician-diagnosed asthma attending the pediatric chest clinic of the Wesley Guild Hospital (WGH), Ilesa, Nigeria were consecutively recruited. Asthma control was assessed using childhood asthma control questionnaire. Partly and uncontrolled asthma was recorded as a suboptimal control. Relevant history and examinations findings were compared between children with good and suboptimal asthma control. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to determine the predictors of suboptimal asthma control. RESULTS: A total of 106 children participated in the study with male:female ratio of 1.5:1, and majority (83.0%) had mild intermittent asthma. Suboptimal asthma control was observed in 19 (17.9%) of the children. Household smoke exposure, low socioeconomic class, unknown triggers, concomitant allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and poor parental asthma knowledge, were significantly associated with suboptimal control (P < 0.05). Low socioeconomic class (odds ratio [OR] =6.231; 95% confidence interval [CI] =1.022-8.496; P = 0.005) and poor parental asthma knowledge (OR = 7.607; 95% CI = 1.011-10.481; P = 0.007) independently predict suboptimal control. CONCLUSION: Approximately, one in five asthmatic children attending the WGH pediatric chest clinic who participated in the study had suboptimal asthma control during the study. More comprehensive parental/child asthma education and provision of affordable asthma care services may help improve asthma control among the children.

Rural-urban disparity in lung function parameters of Nigerian children: effects of socio-economic, nutritional and housing factors.

INTRODUCTION: The effect of socio-demographic and nutritional factors on lung functions of African children is poorly studied. This study set out to determine the effects of these factors on lung functions of Nigerian school children. METHODS: Rural and urban secondary schools students in Ilesa, Nigeria were selected by multistage sampling. The socio-demographic, nutritional status as well as lung function parameters measured using incentive Spirometry (MIR Spirolab III srl, Italy) of the children were obtained and compared among the rural and urban children. RESULTS: A total of 250 children (128 rural and 122 urban) aged 9 to 17 years participated in the study over a 12 month period. Mean (SD) age was 12.6 (1.9) years and Male: Female 1:1.1. The urban children were heavier, taller and have larger lung volumes than their age and sex matched rural counterpart. Stunted rural males [Mean (SD) FVC 1.8 (0.3) L vs. 2.2 (0.6) L t-test = 2.360; p = 0.022], underweight females [Mean (SD) FVC 1.8 (0.4) L vs. 2.2 (0.6) L; t-test = 2.855; p = 0.006] and those exposed to unclean fuel [Mean (SD) FVC 2.1 (0.6) L vs. 2.4 (0.5) L; t-test = 2.079; p = 0.041] had significantly lower lung volumes compared to their counterparts without these conditions. CONCLUSION: Undernutrition, low socio-economic class and use of unclean fuels adversely affect the lung functions of Nigerian children. Improved standard of living, use of clean fuel and adequate nutrition may ensure better lung health among these children.

Pattern, etiological factors and determinants of mortality among sick newborns with seizures in Ilesa, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Neonatal seizures contribute significantly to newborn morbidity and mortality particularly in developing countries including Nigeria. Unfortunately the countries with high incidence of neonatal seizures often lack the facilities to adequately diagnose, monitor and prognosticate the condition. OBJECTIVE: We set out to determine the factors at presentation that predict death among babies admitted with clinically identifiable seizures. METHODS: We prospectively observed consecutive neonatal admissions over a nine month period at the Wesley Guild Hospital, Ilesa, Nigeria. Babies with seizures were identified based on clinical observation. Perinatal history, examination and laboratory findings were compared between babies with seizures who survived and those that died. Multivariate regression analysis was used to determine the predictors of mortality. RESULTS: Over a nine month study period, a total of 340 babies were recruited out of which 55 (16.7 percent) had clinically identifiable seizures. Fifteen (27.3 percent) of the 55 babies with clinically identifiable seizures died; while 20 (7.0 percent) of the 285 babies without seizures died. Clinically identifiable neonatal seizures contributed to 42.9 percent of the overall mortality in the neonatal unit during the study period. The risk factors for mortality among the babies with seizures were clinical seizures in the first 24 hours of life, birth asphyxia co-existing with hyponatraemia and presence of cerebral oedema (P < 0.05). The independent determinant of mortality among babies with clinical seizures was cerebral oedema (OR = 4.025; 95% CI 1.342-26.956; P = 0.019). CONCLUSION: We conclude that clinically identifiable neonatal seizures contribute significantly to neonatal mortality and presentation within 24 hours of delivery, birth asphyxia and cerebral oedema increased the risk of death in babies with seizures.

Epidemiological, clinical and prognostic profile of childhood acute bacterial meningitis in a resource poor setting.

BACKGROUND: Childhood bacterial meningitis is a neurologic emergency that continues to kill and maims children particularly in developing countries with poor immunization coverage. OBJECTIVE: This study set out to assess the hospital incidence, pattern of presentation, etiologic agents, outcome and determinants of mortality among the children admitted with bacterial meningitis at the Wesley Guild Hospital (WGH), Ilesa. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We carried out a retrospective review of admitted cases of bacterial meningitis in children aged one month to 15 years at the WGH, Ilesa over a three year period by looking at the hospital records. Factors in the history and examinations were compared among survivors and those that died to determine factors significantly associated with mortality in these children. RESULTS: Eighty-one (5.5%) of the 1470 childhood admissions during the study period had bacterial meningitis. Male preponderance was observed and two-thirds of the children were infants. More cases were admitted during the wet rainy season than during the dry harmattan season. Haemophilus influenzae type B and Streptococcus pneumoniae were the leading etiologic agents and ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone adequately cover for these organisms. Twenty-two (27.2%) of the 81 children died, while 34 (42.0%) survived with neurologic deficits. Children with multiple seizures, coma, neck retraction, hyponatremia, hypoglycorrhachia, turbid CSF as well as Gram positive meningitis at presentation were found to more likely to die (P < 0.05). None of these factors however independently predict mortality. CONCLUSION: Childhood bacterial meningitis often results in death and neurologic deficit among infants and young children admitted at the WGH, Ilesa. Children diagnosed with meningitis who in addition had multiple seizures, neck retraction and coma at presentation are at increased risk of dying.

Determinants of oxygen therapy in childhood pneumonia in a resource-constrained region.

Childhood pneumonia is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among underfives particularly in the resource-constraint part of the world. A high proportion of these deaths are due to lack of oxygen, thereby making oxygen administration a life-saving adjunctive when indicated. However, many primary health centres that manage most of the cases often lack the adequate manpower and facilities to decide which patient should be on oxygen therapy. Therefore, this study aimed to determine factors that predict hypoxaemia at presentation in children with severe pneumonia. Four hundred and twenty children aged from 2 to 59 months (40% infants) with severe pneumonia admitted to a health centre in rural Gambia were assessed at presentation. Eighty-one of them (19.30%) had hypoxaemia (oxygen saturation < 90%). Children aged 2-11 months, with grunting respiration, cyanosis, and head nodding, and those with cardiomegaly on chest radiograph were at higher risk of hypoxaemia (P < 0.05). Grunting respiration (OR = 5.210, 95% CI 2.287-7.482) and cyanosis (OR = 83.200, 95% CI 5.248-355.111) were independent predictors of hypoxaemia in childhood pneumonia. We conclude that children that grunt and are centrally cyanosed should be preferentially commenced on oxygen therapy even when there is no facility to confirm hypoxaemia.