Memory updating after retrieval: when new information is false or correct.

We conducted three experiments testing the malleability of memory in incorporating new information following retrieval. All experiments used associative lists typical of the DRM paradigm [Deese, J. (1959). On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58(1), 17-22; Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(4), 803-814]. This paradigm enabled the evaluation of the integration of false information and correct information with the original information. In Experiment 1, participants studied DRM lists, and in a later phase either retrieved or restudied the lists and were presented with never-presented critical lures. The results of Experiment 1 showed that compared to restudy, retrieval enhanced the integration of subsequent false information, as measured by later recall in a follow-up test. In Experiments 2 and 3, after initial study, participants retrieved or studied incorrect information and received corrective feedback. The results showed that retrieval led to more error correction than restudy, when feedback was presented immediately. In general, this research suggests retrieval facilitates incorporation of new, related information, regardless of whether it is false or correct.

The effect of unsuccessful retrieval on children's subsequent learning.

It is well known that successful retrieval enhances subsequent adults' learning by promoting long-term retention. Recent research has also found benefits from unsuccessful retrieval, but the evidence is not as clear-cut when the participants are children. In this study, we employed a methodology based on guessing-the weak associate paradigm-to test whether children can learn from generated errors or whether errors are harmful for learning. We tested second- and third-grade children in Experiment 1 and tested preschool and kindergarten children in Experiment 2. With slight differences in the method, in both experiments children heard the experimenter saying one word (cue) and were asked to guess an associate word (guess condition) or to listen to the correspondent target-associated word (study condition), followed by corrective feedback in both conditions. At the end of the guessing phase, the children undertook a cued-recall task in which they were presented with each cue and were asked to say the corrected target. Together, the results showed that older children-those in kindergarten and early elementary school-benefited from unsuccessful retrieval. Older children showed more correct responses and fewer errors in the guess condition. In contrast, preschoolers produced similar levels of correct and error responses in the two conditions. In conclusion, generating errors seems to be beneficial for future learning of children older than 5years.

Explaining the persistence of false memories: a proposal based on associative activation and thematic extraction.

This study aimed to analyse the effect of retention intervals on associative and thematic false memories. Two experiments, using two types of critical items that were either associatively or thematically related to studied material, were conducted. In both experiments, one group of participants performed a recognition test immediately after the presentation of lists, and another group performed the task one week later. In Experiment 1, the recognition test consisted of pairs of items with four response alternatives (both items had been presented, only the left item had been presented, only the right item had been presented or none of the items had been presented). Critical items were also manipulated so that they were either presented in or absent from the list. In Experiment 2, a standard recognition test that differed in the mode of presentation was used: self-paced or speeded response. Both experiments showed that associative critical items were more recognised than thematic critical items in the immediate condition. However, whereas associative critical items decayed after a one-week delay, thematic critical items were similarly recognised at both retention intervals. The findings of the present study suggest that each type of process - associative and thematic - behave differently over time.

Can we learn from errors? Retrieval facilitates the correction of false memories for pragmatic inferences.

Errorful learning suggests that, when perfect learning has not yet been attained, errors can enhance future learning if followed by corrective feedback. Research on memory updating has shown that after retrieval, memory becomes more malleable and prone to change. Thus, retrieval of a wrong answer might provide a good context for the incorporation of feedback. Here, we tested this hypothesis using sentences including pragmatic sentence implications, commonly used for the study of false memories. Across two experiments with young adults, we hypothesized that corrective feedback would be more efficient at reducing false memories if provided immediately after retrieval, when memory is more malleable than after being exposed to the material. Participants' memory was assessed as a function of the type of learning task (Experiment 1: retrieval vs. restudy; and Experiment 2: active vs. passive recognition); and whether participants received corrective feedback or not. In both experiments, we observed that retrieval not only improved correct recall (replicating the testing effect) but also promoted the correction of false memories. Notably, corrective feedback was more effective when given after errors that were committed during retrieval rather than after restudy (Experiment 1) or after passive recognition (Experiment 2). Our results suggest that the benefits of retrieval go beyond the testing effect since it also facilitates false memories correction. Retrieval seems to enhance memory malleability, thus improving the incorporation of feedback, compared to the mere presentation of the information. Our results support the use of learning strategies that engage in active and explicit retrieval because, even if the retrieved information is wrong-when immediate feedback is provided-memory updating is promoted and errors are more likely to be corrected.

Imagination Reduces False Memories for Everyday Action Sentences: Evidence From Pragmatic Inferences.

Human memory can be unreliable, and when reading a sentence with a pragmatic implication, such as "the karate champion hit the cinder block," people often falsely remember that the karate champion "broke" the cinder block. Yet, research has shown that encoding instructions affect the false memories we form. On the one hand, instructing participants to imagine themselves manipulating the to-be-recalled items increase false memories (imagination inflation effect). But on the other hand, instructions to imagine have reduced false memories in the DRM paradigm (imagination facilitation effect). Here, we explored the effect of imaginal encoding with pragmatic inferences, a way to study false memories for information about everyday actions. Across two experiments, we manipulated imaginal encoding through the instructions given to participants and the after-item filler task (none vs. math operations). In Experiment 1, participants were either assigned to the encoding condition of imagine+no filler; pay attention+math; or memorize+math. In Experiment 2, the encoding instructions (imagine vs. memorize) and the filler task (none vs. math) were compared across four separate conditions. Results from the two experiments showed that imagination instructions lead to better memory, by showing a higher proportion of correct responses and better performance in a memory benefit index. Similarly, a significant reduction of false memories was observed across both experiments, even though a complementary Bayesian analysis only supported this conclusion for Experiment 1. The findings show that imaginal encoding improves memory, suggesting the engagement of a distinctiveness heuristic and source-monitoring process.

Testing pragmatic inferences: the impact of language and culture

Pragmatic inferences are one way to study false memories in real-world situations. We aimed to investigate variances in responses to pragmatic implication sentences between Portuguese and American data, presenting, for the first time, normative data of cued recall and recognition for pragmatic implication sentences in Portuguese. In Study 1 we analyzed cued-recall data for Portuguese pragmatic sentences. The proportions of cued- recall for correct and inference responses of each sentence did not significantly correlate with the values of American normative data. In Studies 2a and 2b we analysed forced-recognition data for pragmatic sentences, one with American participants and English sentences (Study 2a) and the other with Portuguese participants and Portuguese sentences (Study 2b). Moreover, two conditions of sentences presentations were applied to eventually detect an influence of the sentences' format, which was not find in both studies. The levels of recognition for correct and inferences were very similar between those two studies but the correlation, sentence by sentence, was low. Together, these results suggest an important recommendation for further studies - normed material for a specific language/culture is a crucial factor to be considered when conducting research on pragmatic inferences

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Estudo comparativo da infiltração marginal em Copings de Níquel-Cromo fixados com diferentes cimentos resinosos / Marginal microleakage in nickel-chromium copings fixed with different resin cements - A comparative study

Objetivo: Avaliar, com o corante azul-de-metileno, a microinfiltração marginal na interface de dentes preparados para coroas totais metalocerâmica e copings, fixados com diferentes cimentos resinosos. Método: Quarenta dentes foram preparados e moldados paraconfeccionar copings em níquel-cromo. A amostra foi dividida em 4 grupos, conforme o agente de cimentação: Grupo I: copings cimentados com Scothbond e RelyX ARC; Grupo II: copings fixados com Single Bond e RelyX ARC; Grupo III: colados com RelyX U100; Grupo IV: fixados com Pavavia F. Os dentes foram armazenados por 6 meses em água destilada a 37OC, submetidos à ciclagem térmica e recolocados na água por mais 6 meses. Exceto nas margens, foram impermeabilizados externamente e imersos em soluçÆo de azul-de-metileno a 1%, por 72 horas. Os copings foram seccionados com discos de carborundum e avaliados com e sem cimento resinoso na superfície do preparo, sendoaplicado para cada face um escore de infiltraçÆo, variando de 0 a 4.Resultados: Na análise com cimento, o grau 0 ocorreu em 65% dasobservaçães do grupo I; 52% no Grupo IV; 42,5% no II e 5% no Grupo III. Na avaliaçÆo sem cimento, ocorreu 95% de graus 0 nas observaçães do Grupo IV; 90% para o I, 57% no Grupo II e 50% no III. Por meio do teste de Kruskal Wallis foi constatada diferença estatisticamente significante entre os grupos (p<0,05), sendo os Grupos I e IV superiores aos demais. ConclusÆo: Antes e após a remoçÆo do cimento, o Panavia F e o Scothbond Multiuso + RelyX ARC apresentaram maior resistência a penetraçÆo do corante...

Objective: To evaluate marginal microleakage at the interface of teethprepared for full metal-ceramic crowns and copings fixed with differentresin cements, using methylene blue staining. Method: Forty teeth were prepared and impressions were obtained to fabricate Ni-Cr copings. The sample was assigned to four groups,according to the luting agent: Group I: coping cemented with Scotchbond and RelyX ARC; Group II: copings fixed with Single Bond and RelyX ARC; Group III: copings fixed with RelyX U100; Group IV: copings fixed with Pavavia F. The teeth were stored in distilled water at37 ºC for six months, subjected to a thermocycling regimen and storedagain in water for another six months. The tooth surfaces were rendered waterproof except for the margins and were immersed in a 1% methylene blue solution for 72 h. The copings were sectioned with carborundum disks and evaluated with or without resin cement on the prepared dental surface. Each face was scored 0 to 4 for leakage.Results: Analysis of the samples with cement revealed that score 0 wasattributed to 65% of the samples of Group I; 52% of Group IV; 42.5% ofGroup II and 5% of Group III. In the analysis of samples without cement,score 0 was attributed to 95% of the samples of Group IV; 90% of Group I; 57% of Group II and 50% of Group III. Statistically significant difference among the groups was found by the Kruskal-Wallis test (p<0.05). Groups I and IV were superior to the others. Conclusion: Before and after removal of the cement, Panavia F and Scotchbond + RelyX ARC presented greater resistance to dyepenetration...