Alternating high-fat diet enhances atherosclerosis by neutrophil reprogramming.

Systemic immune responses caused by chronic hypercholesterolaemia contribute to atherosclerosis initiation, progression and complications1. However, individuals often change their dietary habits over time2, and the effects of an alternating high-fat diet (HFD) on atherosclerosis remain unclear. Here, to address this relevant issue, we developed a protocol using atherosclerosis-prone mice to compare an alternating versus continuous HFD while maintaining similar overall exposure periods. We found that an alternating HFD accelerated atherosclerosis in Ldlr-/- and Apoe-/- mice compared with a continuous HFD. This pro-atherogenic effect of the alternating HFD was also observed in Apoe-/-Rag2-/- mice lacking T, B and natural killer T cells, ruling out the role of the adaptive immune system in the observed phenotype. Discontinuing the HFD in the alternating HFD group downregulated RUNX13, promoting inflammatory signalling in bone marrow myeloid progenitors. After re-exposure to an HFD, these cells produced IL-1ß, leading to emergency myelopoiesis and increased neutrophil levels in blood. Neutrophils infiltrated plaques and released neutrophil extracellular traps, exacerbating atherosclerosis. Specific depletion of neutrophils or inhibition of IL-1ß pathways abolished emergency myelopoiesis and reversed the pro-atherogenic effects of the alternating HFD. This study highlights the role of IL-1ß-dependent neutrophil progenitor reprogramming in accelerated atherosclerosis induced by alternating HFD.

Early intermittent hyperlipidaemia alters tissue macrophages to fuel atherosclerosis.

Hyperlipidaemia is a major risk factor of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Risk of cardiovascular events depends on cumulative lifetime exposure to low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and, independently, on the time course of exposure to LDL-C, with early exposure being associated with a higher risk1. Furthermore, LDL-C fluctuations are associated with ASCVD outcomes2-4. However, the precise mechanisms behind this increased ASCVD risk are not understood. Here, we make the unexpected observation that early intermittent feeding of mice with a high-cholesterol Western-type diet (WD) accelerates atherosclerosis compared with late continuous exposure to WD, despite similar cumulative circulating LDL-C levels. We find that early intermittent hyperlipidaemia alters the number and homeostatic phenotype of resident-like arterial macrophages. Macrophage genes with altered expression are enriched for genes linked to human ASCVD in genome-wide association studies. We show that LYVE1+ resident macrophages are atheroprotective, and identify new biological pathways, related to actin filament organisation, whose alteration accelerates atherosclerosis. Using the Young Finns Study, we show that exposure to cholesterol early in life is significantly associated with the incidence and size of carotid atherosclerotic plaques in mid-adulthood. In summary, our results identify early intermittent exposure to cholesterol as a strong determinant of accelerated atherosclerosis, highlighting the importance of optimal control of hyperlipidaemia early in life, and providing insight into the underlying biological mechanisms. This knowledge will be essential to designing effective therapeutic strategies to combat atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

Endothelial Cell Indoleamine 2, 3-Dioxygenase 1 Alters Cardiac Function After Myocardial Infarction Through Kynurenine.

BACKGROUND: Ischemic cardiovascular diseases, particularly acute myocardial infarction (MI), is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO) catalyzes 1 rate-limiting step of L-tryptophan metabolism, and emerges as an important regulator of many pathological conditions. We hypothesized that IDO could play a key role to locally regulate cardiac homeostasis after MI. METHODS: Cardiac repair was analyzed in mice harboring specific endothelial or smooth muscle cells or cardiomyocyte or myeloid cell deficiency of IDO and challenged with acute myocardial infarction. RESULTS: We show that kynurenine generation through IDO is markedly induced after MI in mice. Total genetic deletion or pharmacological inhibition of IDO limits cardiac injury and cardiac dysfunction after MI. Distinct loss of function of IDO in smooth muscle cells, inflammatory cells, or cardiomyocytes does not affect cardiac function and remodeling in infarcted mice. In sharp contrast, mice harboring endothelial cell-specific deletion of IDO show an improvement of cardiac function as well as cardiomyocyte contractility and reduction in adverse ventricular remodeling. In vivo kynurenine supplementation in IDO-deficient mice abrogates the protective effects of IDO deletion. Kynurenine precipitates cardiomyocyte apoptosis through reactive oxygen species production in an aryl hydrocarbon receptor-dependent mechanism. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that IDO could constitute a new therapeutic target during acute MI.

Thymic stromal lymphopoietin is a key cytokine for the immunomodulation of atherogenesis with Freund's adjuvant.

Adaptive immune responses regulate the development of atherosclerosis, with a detrimental effect of type 1 but a protective role of type 2 immune responses. Immunization of Apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/- ) mice with Freund's adjuvant inhibits the development of atherosclerosis. However, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) is an IL7-like cytokine with essential impact on type 2 immune responses (Th2). Thymic stromal lymphopoietin is strongly expressed in epithelial cells of the skin, but also in various immune cells following appropriate stimulation. In this study, we investigated whether TSLP may be crucial for the anti-atherogenic effect of Freund's adjuvant. Subcutaneous injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) rapidly led to the expression of TSLP and IL1ß at the site of injection. In male mice, CFA-induced TSLP occurred in immigrated monocytes-and not epithelial cells-and was dependent on NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL1ß-signalling. In females, CFA-induced TSLP was independent of IL1ß and upon ovariectomy. CFA/OVA led to a more pronounced imbalance of the T cell response in TSLPR-/- mice, with increased INFγ/IL4 ratio compared with wild-type controls. To test whether TSLP contributes to the anti-atherogenic effects of Freund's adjuvant, we treated ApoE-/- and ApoE-/- /TSLPR-/- mice with either CFA/IFA or PBS. ApoE-/- mice showed less atherogenesis upon CFA/IFA compared with PBS injections. ApoE-/- /TSLPR-/- mice had no attenuation of atherogenesis upon CFA/IFA treatment. Freund's adjuvant executes significant immune-modulating effects via TSLP induction. TSLP-TSLPR signalling is critical for CFA/IFA-mediated attenuation of atherosclerosis.

The Dendritic Cell Receptor DNGR-1 Promotes the Development of Atherosclerosis in Mice.

RATIONALE: Necrotic core formation during the development of atherosclerosis is associated with a chronic inflammatory response and promotes accelerated plaque development and instability. However, the molecular links between necrosis and the development of atherosclerosis are not completely understood. Clec9a (C-type lectin receptor) or DNGR-1 (dendritic cell NK lectin group receptor-1) is preferentially expressed by the CD8α+ subset of dendritic cells (CD8α+ DCs) and is involved in sensing necrotic cells. We hypothesized that sensing of necrotic cells by DNGR-1 plays a determinant role in the inflammatory response of atherosclerosis. OBJECTIVE: We sought to address the impact of total, bone marrow-restricted, or CD8α+ DC-restricted deletion of DNGR-1 on atherosclerosis development. METHODS AND RESULTS: We show that total absence of DNGR-1 in Apoe (apolipoprotein e)-deficient mice (Apoe-/-) and bone marrow-restricted deletion of DNGR-1 in Ldlr (low-density lipoprotein receptor)-deficient mice (Ldlr-/-) significantly reduce inflammatory cell content within arterial plaques and limit atherosclerosis development in a context of moderate hypercholesterolemia. This is associated with a significant increase of the expression of interleukin-10 (IL-10). The atheroprotective effect of DNGR-1 deletion is completely abrogated in the absence of bone marrow-derived IL-10. Furthermore, a specific deletion of DNGR-1 in CD8α+ DCs significantly increases IL-10 expression, reduces macrophage and T-cell contents within the lesions, and limits the development of atherosclerosis. CONCLUSIONS: Our results unravel a new role of DNGR-1 in regulating vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis and potentially identify a new target for disease modulation.

Selective EGFR (Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor) Deletion in Myeloid Cells Limits Atherosclerosis-Brief Report.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the consequences of specific inhibition of EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) in myeloid cells in atherosclerosis development. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Atherosclerotic lesion size was significantly reduced in irradiated Ldlr-/- mice reconstituted with LysMCre+Egfrlox/lox bone marrow, compared with chimeric Ldlr-/- mice reconstituted with LysMCre-Egfrlox/lox bone marrow, after 4 (-43%; P<0.05), 7 (-34%; P<0.05), and 12 weeks (-54%; P<0.001) of high-fat diet. Reduction of lesion size was associated with marked reduction in macrophage accumulation and necrotic core size. Specific deletion of Egfr in myeloid cells reduced TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-α) and IL (interleukin)-6 production by stimulated macrophages but had no effect on IL-10 and IL-12p70 secretion. Finally, we found that myeloid deletion of Egfr limited cytoskeletal rearrangements and also lipid uptake by macrophages through a downregulation of the scavenger receptor CD36 (cluster of differentiation 36). CONCLUSIONS: Gene deletion of Egfr in myeloid cells limits IL-6 and TNF-α production, lipid uptake, and consecutively reduces atherosclerosis development.

The intravenous injection of oxidized LDL- or Apolipoprotein B100--Coupled splenocytes promotes Th1 polarization in wildtype and Apolipoprotein E--Deficient mice.

BACKGROUND: Th1 responses in atherosclerosis are mainly associated with the aggravation of atherosclerotic plaques, whereas Th2 responses lead to a less pronounced disease in mouse models. The fixation of antigens on cells by means of ethylene carbodiimide (ECDI), and subsequent injection of these antigen-coupled splenocytes (Ag-SP) to induce tolerance against the attached antigens, has been successfully used to treat murine type 1 diabetes or encephalomyelitis in. We analyzed this approach in a mouse model for atherosclerosis. METHODS AND RESULTS: OTII-transgenic mice that were treated with a single dose of 5 × 10(7) OVA-coupled splenocytes (OVA-SP), had decreased splenocyte proliferation, and lower IFNγ production in vitro upon antigen recall. However, in vivo CD4 cell activation was increased. To try lipoprotein-derived, "atherosclerosis-associated" antigens, we first tested human oxidized LDL. In wild type mice, an increase of IFNγ production upon in vitro recall was detected in the oxLDL-SP group. In Apolipoprotein E - deficient (ApoE-/-) mice that received oxLDL-SP every 5 weeks for 20 weeks, we did not find any difference of atherosclerotic plaque burden, but again increased IFNγ production. To overcome xenogenous limitations, we then examined the effects of mouse Apolipoprotein B100 peptides P3 and P6. ApoB100-SP treatment again promoted a more IFNγ pronounced response upon in vitro recall. Flow cytometry analysis of cytokine secreting spleen cells revealed CD4 positive T cells to be mainly the source for IFNγ. In ApoE-/- mice that were administered ApoB100-SP during 20 weeks, the atherosclerotic plaque burden in aortic roots as well as total aorta was unchanged compared to PBS treated controls. Splenocyte proliferation upon antigen recall was not significantly altered in ApoB100-SP treated ApoE-/- mice. CONCLUSION: Although we did not observe a relevant anti-atherosclerotic benefit, the treatment with antigen-coupled splenocytes in its present form already impacts the immune responses and deserves further exploration.

Natural regulatory T cells limit angiotensin II-induced aneurysm formation and rupture in mice.

OBJECTIVE: Abdominal aortic aneurysm is an inflammatory disease leading to destructive vascular remodeling and ultimately to lethal aortic rupture. Despite its frequent association with atherosclerosis, compelling studies have shown striking differences and potentially opposite roles of T-cell helper responses in aneurysm as compared with atherosclerosis, casting doubt on the relevance and suitability of T-cell-targeted therapies in this context. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Here, we show that selective depletion of T regulatory (Treg) cells using a CD25-specific monoclonal antibody significantly enhances the susceptibility of C57Bl/6 mice to angiotensin II-induced abdominal aortic aneurysm and promotes aortic rupture (n=25-44 mice/group). Similar results are observed in angiotensin II-treated Cd80(-/-)/Cd86(-/-) or Cd28(-/-) mice with impaired Treg cell homeostasis (n=18-23 mice/group). Treg cell depletion is associated with increased immune cell activation and a blunted interleukin (IL)-10 anti-inflammatory response, suggesting an immunoinflammatory imbalance. Interestingly, Il-10(-/-) mice (n=20 mice/group) show increased susceptibility to angiotensin II-induced abdominal aortic aneurysm and aortic rupture and are insensitive to Treg cell depletion. Finally, reconstitution of Cd28(-/-) Treg-deficient mice with Treg cells (n=22 mice/group) restores a balance in the immunoinflammatory response, rescues the animals from increased susceptibility to aneurysm, and prevents aortic dissection. CONCLUSIONS: These results identify a critical role for Treg cells and IL-10 in the control of aneurysm formation and its progression to rupture and suggest that therapies targeting Treg responses may be most suited to treat aneurysmal disease.

Group X secreted phospholipase A2 limits the development of atherosclerosis in LDL receptor-null mice.

OBJECTIVE: Several secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s), including group IIA, III, V, and X, have been linked to the development of atherosclerosis, which led to the clinical testing of A-002 (varespladib), a broad sPLA2 inhibitor for the treatment of coronary artery disease. Group X sPLA2 (PLA2G10) has the most potent hydrolyzing activity toward phosphatidylcholine and is believed to play a proatherogenic role. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, we show that Ldlr(-/-) mice reconstituted with bone marrow from mouse group X-deficient mice (Pla2g10(-/-)) unexpectedly display a doubling of plaque size compared with Pla2g10(+/+) chimeric mice. Macrophages of Pla2g10(-/-) mice are more susceptible to apoptosis in vitro, which is associated with a 4-fold increase of plaque necrotic core in vivo. In addition, chimeric Pla2g10(-/-) mice show exaggerated T lymphocyte (Th)1 immune response, associated with enhanced T-cell infiltration in atherosclerotic plaques. Interestingly, overexpression of human PLA2G10 in murine bone marrow cells leads to significant reduction of Th1 response and to 50% reduction of lesion size. CONCLUSIONS: PLA2G10 expression in bone marrow cells controls a proatherogenic Th1 response and limits the development of atherosclerosis. The results may provide an explanation for the recently reported inefficacy of A-002 (varespladib) to treat patients with coronary artery disease. Indeed, A-002 is a nonselective sPLA2 inhibitor that inhibits both proatherogenic (groups IIA and V) and antiatherogenic (group X) sPLA2s. Our results suggest that selective targeting of individual sPLA2 enzymes may be a better strategy to treat cardiovascular diseases.

Circulating levels of interleukin-17 and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with acute myocardial infarction.

AIM: Interleukin (IL)-17 pathway is being clinically targeted in immune-mediated diseases, most of which are associated with a significant cardiovascular risk. We investigated the relationship between serum levels of IL-17 and the risk of cardiovascular events in patients with acute myocardial infarction. METHODS AND RESULTS: We used data from 981 patients enrolled in the prospective, multicentre French registry of Acute ST elevation, or non-ST-elevation Myocardial Infarction (Fast-MI, NCT00673036). Serum levels of IL-17 were associated with the risk of all-cause death and recurrent MI at 2 years, with levels of IL-17 below the median indicative of a worse outcome. The impact of IL-17 remained significant after adjustment for known cardiovascular risk factors, C-reactive protein, and treatments including statins: hazard ratio (HR) = 1.40 (1.03-1.91); P = 0.03. IL-17 inhibited mononuclear cell adhesion to endothelium and reduced endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM-1) expression. Patients with low (below the median) IL-17 levels and high (above the median) soluble VCAM-1 (sVCAM-1) levels were at particularly increased risk of death and MI: adjusted HR = 2.22 (1.32-3.75) compared with the high IL-17/low sVCAM-1 group (P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Low serum levels of IL-17 are associated with a higher risk of major cardiovascular events in Caucasian patients with acute MI. Our results raise possible concern about the use of inhibitors of the IL-17 pathway in clinical settings associated with a high cardiovascular risk. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT00673036.

Harnessing intestinal tryptophan catabolism to relieve atherosclerosis in mice.

Tryptophan (Trp) is an essential amino acid, whose metabolism is a key gatekeeper of intestinal homeostasis. Yet, its systemic effects, particularly on atherosclerosis, remain unknown. Here we show that high-fat diet (HFD) increases the activity of intestinal indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO), which shifts Trp metabolism from the production of microbiota-derived indole metabolites towards kynurenine production. Under HFD, the specific deletion of IDO in intestinal epithelial cells leads to intestinal inflammation, impaired intestinal barrier, augmented lesional T lymphocytes and atherosclerosis. This is associated with an increase in serotonin production and a decrease in indole metabolites, thus hijacking Trp for the serotonin pathway. Inhibition of intestinal serotonin production or supplementation with indole derivatives alleviates plaque inflammation and atherosclerosis. In summary, we uncover a pivotal role of intestinal IDO in the fine-tuning of Trp metabolism with systemic effects on atherosclerosis, paving the way for new therapeutic strategies to relieve gut-associated inflammatory diseases.

An obesogenic diet increases atherosclerosis through promoting microbiota dysbiosis-induced gut lymphocyte trafficking into the periphery.

Although high-fat diet (HFD)-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis is known to affect atherosclerosis, the underlying mechanisms remain to be fully explored. Here, we show that the progression of atherosclerosis depends on a gut microbiota shaped by an HFD but not a high-cholesterol (HC) diet and, more particularly, on low fiber (LF) intake. Mechanistically, gut lymphoid cells impacted by HFD- or LF-induced microbiota dysbiosis highly proliferate in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) and migrate from MLNs to the periphery, which fuels T cell accumulation within atherosclerotic plaques. This is associated with the induction of mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule 1 (MAdCAM-1) within plaques and the presence of enterotropic lymphocytes expressing ß7 integrin. MLN resection or lymphocyte deficiency abrogates the pro-atherogenic effects of a microbiota shaped by LF. Our study shows a pathological link between a diet-shaped microbiota, gut immune cells, and atherosclerosis, suggesting that a diet-modulated microbiome might be a suitable therapeutic target to prevent atherosclerosis.

Genetic inhibition of CARD9 accelerates the development of atherosclerosis in mice through CD36 dependent-defective autophagy.

Caspase recruitment-domain containing protein 9 (CARD9) is a key signaling pathway in macrophages but its role in atherosclerosis is still poorly understood. Global deletion of Card9 in Apoe-/- mice as well as hematopoietic deletion in Ldlr-/- mice increases atherosclerosis. The acceleration of atherosclerosis is also observed in Apoe-/-Rag2-/-Card9-/- mice, ruling out a role for the adaptive immune system in the vascular phenotype of Card9 deficient mice. Card9 deficiency alters macrophage phenotype through CD36 overexpression with increased IL-1ß production, increased lipid uptake, higher cell death susceptibility and defective autophagy. Rapamycin or metformin, two autophagy inducers, abolish intracellular lipid overload, restore macrophage survival and autophagy flux in vitro and finally abolish the pro-atherogenic effects of Card9 deficiency in vivo. Transcriptomic analysis of human CARD9-deficient monocytes confirms the pathogenic signature identified in murine models. In summary, CARD9 is a key protective pathway in atherosclerosis, modulating macrophage CD36-dependent inflammatory responses, lipid uptake and autophagy.

JAK2V617F mutation drives vascular resident macrophages toward a pathogenic phenotype and promotes dissecting aortic aneurysm.

JAK2V617F mutation is associated with an increased risk for athero-thrombotic cardiovascular disease, but its role in aortic disease development and complications remains unknown. In a cohort of patients with myeloproliferative neoplasm, JAK2V617F mutation was identified as an independent risk factor for dilation of both the ascending and descending thoracic aorta. Using single-cell RNA-seq, complementary genetically-modified mouse models, as well as pharmacological approaches, we found that JAK2V617F mutation was associated with a pathogenic pro-inflammatory phenotype of perivascular tissue-resident macrophages, which promoted deleterious aortic wall remodeling at early stages, and dissecting aneurysm through the recruitment of circulating monocytes at later stages. Finally, genetic manipulation of tissue-resident macrophages, or treatment with a Jak2 inhibitor, ruxolitinib, mitigated aortic wall inflammation and reduced aortic dilation and rupture. Overall, JAK2V617F mutation drives vascular resident macrophages toward a pathogenic phenotype and promotes dissecting aortic aneurysm.

TREM-1 orchestrates angiotensin II-induced monocyte trafficking and promotes experimental abdominal aortic aneurysm.

The triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM-1) drives inflammatory responses in several cardiovascular diseases but its role in abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) remains unknown. Our objective was to explore the role of TREM-1 in a mouse model of angiotensin II-induced (AngII-induced) AAA. TREM-1 expression was detected in mouse aortic aneurysm and colocalized with macrophages. Trem1 gene deletion (Apoe-/-Trem1-/-), as well as TREM-1 pharmacological blockade with LR-12 peptide, limited both AAA development and severity. Trem1 gene deletion attenuated the inflammatory response in the aorta, with a reduction of Il1b, Tnfa, Mmp2, and Mmp9 mRNA expression, and led to a decreased macrophage content due to a reduction of Ly6Chi classical monocyte trafficking. Conversely, antibody-mediated TREM-1 stimulation exacerbated Ly6Chi monocyte aorta infiltration after AngII infusion through CD62L upregulation and promoted proinflammatory signature in the aorta, resulting in worsening AAA severity. AngII infusion stimulated TREM-1 expression and activation on Ly6Chi monocytes through AngII receptor type I (AT1R). In human AAA, TREM-1 was detected and TREM1 mRNA expression correlated with SELL mRNA expression. Finally, circulating levels of sTREM-1 were increased in patients with AAA when compared with patients without AAA. In conclusion, TREM-1 is involved in AAA pathophysiology and may represent a promising therapeutic target in humans.

Selective EGF-Receptor Inhibition in CD4+ T Cells Induces Anergy and Limits Atherosclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Several epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors have been successfully developed for the treatment of cancer, limiting tumor growth and metastasis. EGFR is also expressed by leukocytes, but little is known about its role in the modulation of the immune response. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine whether EGFR expressed on CD4+ T cells is functional and to address the consequences of EGFR inhibition in atherosclerosis, a T cell-mediated vascular chronic inflammatory disease. METHODS: The authors used EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (AG-1478, erlotinib) and chimeric Ldlr-/-Cd4-Cre/Egfrlox/lox mouse with a specific deletion of EGFR in CD4+ T cells. RESULTS: Mouse CD4+ T cells expressed EGFR, and the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor AG-1478 blocked in vitro T cell proliferation and Th1/Th2 cytokine production. In vivo, treatment of Ldlr-/- mice with the EGFR inhibitor erlotinib induced T cell anergy, reduced T cell infiltration within atherosclerotic lesions, and protected against atherosclerosis development and progression. Selective deletion of EGFR in CD4+ T cells resulted in decreased T cell proliferation and activation both in vitro and in vivo, as well as reduced interferon-γ, interleukin-4, and interleukin-2 production. Atherosclerotic lesion size was reduced by 2-fold in irradiated Ldlr-/- mice reconstituted with bone marrow from Cd4-Cre/Egfrlox/lox mice, compared to Cd4-Cre/Egfr+/+ chimeric mice, after 4, 6, and 12 weeks of high-fat diet, associated with marked reduction in T cell infiltration in atherosclerotic plaques. Human blood T cells expressed EGFR and EGFR inhibition reduced T cell proliferation both in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: EGFR blockade induced T cell anergy in vitro and in vivo and reduced atherosclerosis development. Targeting EGFR may be a novel strategy to combat atherosclerosis.

Genetic deficiency of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase promotes gut microbiota-mediated metabolic health.

The association between altered gut microbiota, intestinal permeability, inflammation and cardiometabolic diseases is becoming increasingly clear but remains poorly understood1,2. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase is an enzyme induced in many types of immune cells, including macrophages in response to inflammatory stimuli, and catalyzes the degradation of tryptophan along the kynurenine pathway. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity is better known for its suppression of effector T cell immunity and its activation of regulatory T cells3,4. However, high indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity predicts worse cardiovascular outcome5-9 and may promote atherosclerosis and vascular inflammation6, suggesting a more complex role in chronic inflammatory settings. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity is also increased in obesity10-13, yet its role in metabolic disease is still unexplored. Here, we show that obesity is associated with an increase of intestinal indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity, which shifts tryptophan metabolism from indole derivative and interleukin-22 production toward kynurenine production. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase deletion or inhibition improves insulin sensitivity, preserves the gut mucosal barrier, decreases endotoxemia and chronic inflammation, and regulates lipid metabolism in liver and adipose tissues. These beneficial effects are due to rewiring of tryptophan metabolism toward a microbiota-dependent production of interleukin-22 and are abrogated after treatment with a neutralizing anti-interleukin-22 antibody. In summary, we identify an unexpected function of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase in the fine tuning of intestinal tryptophan metabolism with major consequences on microbiota-dependent control of metabolic disease, which suggests indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase as a potential therapeutic target.

Angiotensin II synergizes with BAFF to promote atheroprotective regulatory B cells.

Angiotensin II (AngII) promotes hypertension, atherogenesis, vascular aneurysm and impairs post-ischemic cardiac remodeling through concerted roles on vascular cells, monocytes and T lymphocytes. However, the role of AngII in B lymphocyte responses is largely unexplored. Here, we show that chronic B cell depletion (Baffr deficiency) significantly reduces atherosclerosis in Apoe -/- mice infused with AngII. While adoptive transfer of B cells in Apoe -/- /Baffr -/- mice reversed atheroprotection in the absence of AngII, infusion of AngII in B cell replenished Apoe -/- /Baffr -/- mice unexpectedly prevented the progression of atherosclerosis. Atheroprotection observed in these mice was associated with a significant increase in regulatory CD1dhiCD5+ B cells, which produced high levels of interleukin (IL)-10 (B10 cells). Replenishment of Apoe -/- /Baffr -/- mice with Il10 -/- B cells reversed AngII-induced B cell-dependent atheroprotection, thus highlighting a protective role of IL-10+ regulatory B cells in this setting. Transfer of AngII type 1A receptor deficient (Agtr1a -/-) B cells into Apoe -/- /Baffr -/- mice substantially reduced the production of IL-10 by B cells and prevented the AngII-dependent atheroprotective B cell phenotype. Consistent with the in vivo data, AngII synergized with BAFF to induce IL-10 production by B cells in vitro via AngII type 1A receptor. Our data demonstrate a previously unknown synergy between AngII and BAFF in inducing IL-10 production by B cells, resulting in atheroprotection.