Splicing analysis of 24 potential spliceogenic variants in MMR genes and clinical interpretation based on refined ACMG/AMP criteria.

Lynch syndrome (LS) is a common hereditary cancer syndrome caused by heterozygous germline pathogenic variants in DNA mismatch repair (MMR) genes. Splicing defect constitutes one of the major mechanisms for MMR gene inactivation. Using RT-PCR based RNA analysis, we investigated 24 potential spliceogenic variants in MMR genes and determined their pathogenicity based on refined splicing-related American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics/Association for Molecular Pathology (ACMG/AMP) criteria. Aberrant transcripts were confirmed in 19 variants and 17 of which were classified as pathogenic including 11 located outside of canonical splice sites. Most of these variants were previously reported in LS patients without mRNA splicing assessment. Thus, our study provides crucial evidence for pathogenicity determination, allowing for appropriate clinical follow-up. We also found that computational predictions were globally well correlated with RNA analysis results and the use of both SPiP and SpliceAI software appeared more efficient for splicing defect prediction.

PMS2 or PMS2CL? Characterization of variants detected in the 3' of the PMS2 gene.

PMS2 germline pathogenic variants are one of the major causes for Lynch syndrome and constitutional mismatch repair deficiencies. Variant identification in the 3' region of this gene is complicated by the presence of the pseudogene PMS2CL which shares a high sequence homology with PMS2. Consequently, short-fragment screening strategies (NGS, Sanger) may fail to discriminate variant's gene localization. Using a comprehensive analysis strategy, we assessed 42 NGS-detected variants in 76 patients and found 32 localized on PMS2 while 6 on PMS2CL. Interestingly, four variants were detected in either of them in different patients. Clinical phenotype was well correlated to genotype, making it very helpful in variant assessment. Our findings emphasize the necessity of more specific complementary analyses to confirm the gene origin of each variant detected in different individuals in order to avoid variant misinterpretation. In addition, we characterized two PMS2 genomic alterations involving Alu-mediated tandem duplication and gene conversion. Those mechanisms seemed to be particularly favored in PMS2 which contribute to frequent genomic rearrangements in the 3' region of the gene.

Characterisation of heterozygous PMS2 variants in French patients with Lynch syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Heterozygous germline PMS2 variants are responsible for about 5% of Lynch syndrome (LS) but their prevalence is most likely underestimated because of complicated routine screening caused by highly homologous pseudogenes. Consequently, there is limited knowledge on the implication of the PMS2 gene in LS. METHODS: We report 200 PMS2 heterozygous variants identified in 195 French patients, including 112 unique variants classified as class-3/4/5. RESULTS: Genomic rearrangements account for 18% of alterations. The c.137G>T variant was observed in 18% of the patients, but a founder effect could not be clearly identified by haplotype analysis. Among class-4/5 variant carriers, the median age at first tumour onset was 49 years with a predominance of colorectal (80%) and endometrial (8.1%) cancers. Seven patients developed colorectal cancers before the age of 30 with the youngest at the age of 21. Only 6.2% of class-4/5 carriers had a family history fulfilling Amsterdam I/II criteria among patients with available data. Tumours from PMS2 variant carriers exhibited microsatellite instability (96%) and loss of PMS2 expression (76%), confirming the high predictive value of somatic analysis. CONCLUSION: Our results provide further insight into the role of the PMS2 gene in LS. While PMS2 variants are mostly detected in families not fulfilling Amsterdam criteria, which supports their lower penetrance, they can nevertheless cause early-onset cancers, highlighting the variability of their penetrance.

Dismantling papillary renal cell carcinoma classification: The heterogeneity of genetic profiles suggests several independent diseases.

Papillary renal cell carcinoma (pRCC) is the second most frequent renal cell carcinoma (RCC) after clear cell RCC. In contrast to clear cell RCC, there is no consensual protocol using targeted therapy for metastatic pRCC. Moreover, diagnosis of some pRCC, especially pRCC of type 2 (pRCC2) may be challenging. Our aim was to identify molecular biomarkers that could be helpful for the diagnosis and treatment of pRCC. We studied the clinical, histological, immunohistological, and comprehensive genetic features of a series of 31 pRCC including 15 pRCC1 and 16 pRCC2. We aimed to determine whether pRCC represents a unique entity or several diseases. In addition, we compared the genetic features of pRCC2 to those of eight RCC showing various degrees of tubulo-papillary architecture, including three TFE-translocation RCC and five unclassified RCC. We demonstrate that pRCC is a heterogeneous group of tumors with distinct evolution. While most pRCC2 had genetic profiles similar to pRCC1, some shared genomic features, such as loss of 3p and loss of chromosome 14, with clear cell RCC, TFE-translocation RCC, and unclassified RCC. We identified variants of the MET gene in three pRCC1. A mutation in the BRAF gene was also identified in one pRCC1. In addition, using next-generation sequencing (NGS), we identified several variant genes. Genomic profiling completed by NGS allowed us to classify pRCC2 in several groups and to identify novel mutations. Our findings provide novel information on the pathogenesis of pRCC that allow insights for personalized treatment.

From variant of unknown significance to likely pathogenic: Characterization and pathogenicity determination of a large genomic deletion in the MLH1 gene.

BACKGROUND: The MLH1 gene is one of the DNA mismatch repair genes (MMR), implicated in Lynch syndrome (LS), an autosomal dominant hereditary tumor susceptibility disease. The advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies has accelerated the diagnosis of inherited diseases and increased the percentage of diagnosis of inherited cancers. However, some complex genomic alterations require the combination of several analytical strategies to allow correct biological interpretations. Here, we describe a novel MLH1 deletion and its pathogenicity determination in a patient suspected of LS. METHODS: The index case was a French 73-year-old man diagnosed with colorectal cancer displaying microsatellite instability and the loss of MLH1 and PMS2 expression. NGS analysis was used as the primary method for MMR genes screening. Long-range PCR and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were used for breakpoints and pathogenicity determinations. RESULTS: A large genomic deletion was detected which removed the last six nucleotides of MLH1 exon 11 together with a large part of intron 11. It was initially considered as a variant of unknown significance (VUS). Genomic breakpoints were subsequently characterized defining the deletion as c.1033_1039-248del. Further RNA analysis demonstrated that this variant activated a cryptic donor splice site at the 5' of the breakpoint, leading to a premature truncated protein: p.Thr345Alafs*13. CONCLUSION: Our finding suggested that although NGS technologies have increased variant detection yield, combined approaches were still needed for complex variant characterization and pathogenicity assessment.

A PMS2 non-canonical splicing site variant leads to aberrant splicing in a patient suspected for lynch syndrome.

The PMS2 gene is one of the DNA mismatch repair genes (MMR) implicated in Lynch syndrome (LS). A subset of PMS2 pathogenic variants (PVs) are splice variants mostly affecting canonical GT/AG splicing sequences. However, the majority of the intronic variants outside canonical splice sites remained as variants of unknown significance, even though some of them would alter the splicing process. In this report, we describe the analysis of such an intronic variant (c.251-5T > C) detected in an 82-year-old patient diagnosed with endometrial cancer displaying microsatellite instability and the loss of PMS2 expression displayed. RNA analysis demonstrated that this variant lead to the complete exon 4 skipping, resulting in the synthesis of a truncated protein. This finding shows the relevance of functional RNA analysis in the non-canonical intronic variant assessment and the importance of systematic evaluation of MSI/loss of expression of MMR genes for LS screening in patients with endometrial cancers.

A diagnostic genetic test for the physical mapping of germline rearrangements in the susceptibility breast cancer genes BRCA1 and BRCA2.

The BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are involved in breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility. About 2 to 4% of breast cancer patients with positive family history, negative for point mutations, can be expected to carry large rearrangements in one of these two genes. We developed a novel diagnostic genetic test for the physical mapping of large rearrangements, based on molecular combing (MC), a FISH-based technique for direct visualization of single DNA molecules at high resolution. We designed specific Genomic Morse Codes (GMCs), covering the exons, the noncoding regions, and large genomic portions flanking both genes. We validated our approach by testing 10 index cases with positive family history of breast cancer and 50 negative controls. Large rearrangements, corresponding to deletions and duplications with sizes ranging from 3 to 40 kb, were detected and characterized on both genes, including four novel mutations. The nature of all the identified mutations was confirmed by high-resolution array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) and breakpoints characterized by sequencing. The developed GMCs allowed to localize several tandem repeat duplications on both genes. We propose the developed genetic test as a valuable tool to screen large rearrangements in BRCA1 and BRCA2 to be combined in clinical settings with an assay capable of detecting small mutations.

Guidelines for splicing analysis in molecular diagnosis derived from a set of 327 combined in silico/in vitro studies on BRCA1 and BRCA2 variants.

Assessing the impact of variants of unknown significance (VUS) on splicing is a key issue in molecular diagnosis. This impact can be predicted by in silico tools, but proper evaluation and user guidelines are lacking. To fill this gap, we embarked upon the largest BRCA1 and BRCA2 splice study to date by testing 272 VUSs (327 analyses) within the BRCA splice network of Unicancer. All these VUSs were analyzed by using six tools (splice site prediction by neural network, splice site finder (SSF), MaxEntScan (MES), ESE finder, relative enhancer and silencer classification by unanimous enrichment, and human splicing finder) and the predictions obtained were compared with transcript analysis results. Combining MES and SSF gave 96% sensitivity and 83% specificity for VUSs occurring in the vicinity of consensus splice sites, that is, the surrounding 11 and 14 bases for the 5' and 3' sites, respectively. This study was also an opportunity to define guidelines for transcript analysis along with a tentative classification of splice variants. The guidelines drawn from this large series should be useful for the whole community, particularly in the context of growing sequencing capacities that require robust pipelines for variant interpretation.

An entire exon 3 germ-line rearrangement in the BRCA2 gene: pathogenic relevance of exon 3 deletion in breast cancer predisposition.

BACKGROUND: Germ-line mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are major contributors to hereditary breast/ovarian cancer. Large rearrangements are less frequent in the BRCA2 gene than in BRCA1. We report, here, the first total deletion of exon 3 in the BRCA2 gene that was detected during screening of 2058 index cases from breast/ovarian cancer families for BRCA2 large rearrangements. Deletion of exon 3, which is in phase, does not alter the reading frame. Low levels of alternative transcripts lacking exon 3 (Δ3 delta3 transcript) have been reported in normal tissues, which raises the question whether deletion of exon 3 is pathogenic. METHODS: Large BRCA2 rearrangements were analysed by QMPSF (Quantitative Multiplex PCR of Short Fluorescent Fragments) or MLPA (Multiplex Ligation-Dependent Probe Amplification). The exon 3 deletion was characterized with a "zoom-in" dedicated CGH array to the BRCA2 gene and sequencing. To determine the effect of exon 3 deletion and assess its pathogenic effect, three methods of transcript quantification were used: fragment analysis of FAM-labelled PCR products, specific allelic expression using an intron 2 polymorphism and competitive quantitative RT-PCR. RESULTS: Large rearrangements of BRCA2 were detected in six index cases out of 2058 tested (3% of all deleterious BRCA2 mutations). This study reports the first large rearrangement of the BRCA2 gene that includes all of exon 3 and leads to an in frame deletion of exon 3 at the transcriptional level. Thirty five variants in exon 3 and junction regions of BRCA2 are also reported, that contribute to the interpretation of the pathogenicity of the deletion. The quantitative approaches showed that there are three classes of delta3 BRCA2 transcripts (low, moderate and exclusive). Exclusive expression of the delta3 transcript by the mutant allele and segregation data provide evidence for a causal effect of the exon 3 deletion. CONCLUSION: This paper highlights that large rearrangements and total deletion of exon 3 in the BRCA2 gene could contribute to hereditary breast and/or ovarian cancer. In addition, our findings suggest that, to interpret the pathogenic effect of any variants of exon 3, both accurate transcript quantification and co-segregation analysis are required.

Acquired somatic MMR deficiency is a major cause of MSI tumor in patients suspected for "Lynch-like syndrome" including young patients.

Patients with tumors displaying high microsatellite instability (MSI-H) but no germline MMR inactivation are suspected for Lynch-like syndrome (LLS). To explore the involvement of acquired somatic MMR alteration as a cause, we screened 113 patient tumor samples for MMR gene variations and loss of heterozygosity. Somatic MMR alterations were found in 85.8% of patients including "double hits" in 63.7% of patients, mainly diagnosed with colon and endometrial cancers. Interestingly, 37.5% of them were under the age of 50, and seven patients were under 30. Somatic alterations were mainly attributed to the MLH1, MSH2 genes, likely reflecting the functional importance of these key MMR genes. Pathogenic variants co-existed in other cancer genes in particular the APC gene displaying a characteristic MMR deficiency-related "mutational signature", indicating that it may be inactivated owing to MMR deficiency. We speculated that APC inactivation could trigger an accelerated malignant transformation underlying early-onset cancers. Our findings provide further insight into the mechanisms underlying LLS, somatic MMR inactivation being a major cause for early-onset LLS through pathways differing from those involved in late-onset sporadic cases.

Quantitative PCR high-resolution melting (qPCR-HRM) curve analysis, a new approach to simultaneously screen point mutations and large rearrangements: application to MLH1 germline mutations in Lynch syndrome.

Several techniques have been developed to screen mismatch repair (MMR) genes for deleterious mutations. Until now, two different techniques were required to screen for both point mutations and large rearrangements. For the first time, we propose a new approach, called "quantitative PCR (qPCR) high-resolution melting (HRM) curve analysis (qPCR-HRM)," which combines qPCR and HRM to obtain a rapid and cost-effective method suitable for testing a large series of samples. We designed PCR amplicons to scan the MLH1 gene using qPCR HRM. Seventy-six patients were fully scanned in replicate, including 14 wild-type patients and 62 patients with known mutations (57 point mutations and five rearrangements). To validate the detected mutations, we used sequencing and/or hybridization on a dedicated MLH1 array-comparative genomic hybridization (array-CGH). All point mutations and rearrangements detected by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (dHPLC)+multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) were successfully detected by qPCR HRM. Three large rearrangements were characterized with the dedicated MLH1 array-CGH. One variant was detected with qPCR HRM in a wild-type patient and was located within the reverse primer. One variant was not detected with qPCR HRM or with dHPLC due to its proximity to a T-stretch. With qPCR HRM, prescreening for point mutations and large rearrangements are performed in one tube and in one step with a single machine, without the need for any automated sequencer in the prescreening process. In replicate, its reagent cost, sensitivity, and specificity are comparable to those of dHPLC+MLPA techniques. However, qPCR HRM outperformed the other techniques in terms of its rapidity and amount of data provided.

Full in-frame exon 3 skipping of BRCA2 confers high risk of breast and/or ovarian cancer.

Germline pathogenic variants in the BRCA2 gene are associated with a cumulative high risk of breast/ovarian cancer. Several BRCA2 variants result in complete loss of the exon-3 at the transcript level. The pathogenicity of these variants and the functional impact of loss of exon 3 have yet to be established. As a collaboration of the COVAR clinical trial group (France), and the ENIGMA consortium for investigating breast cancer gene variants, this study evaluated 8 BRCA2 variants resulting in complete deletion of exon 3. Clinical information for 39 families was gathered from Portugal, France, Denmark and Sweden. Multifactorial likelihood analyses were conducted using information from 293 patients, for 7 out of the 8 variants (including 6 intronic). For all variants combined the likelihood ratio in favor of causality was 4.39*1025. These results provide convincing evidence for the pathogenicity of all examined variants that lead to a total exon 3 skipping, and suggest that other variants that result in complete loss of exon 3 at the molecular level could be associated with a high risk of cancer comparable to that associated with classical pathogenic variants in BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene. In addition, our functional study shows, for the first time, that deletion of exon 3 impairs the ability of cells to survive upon Mitomycin-C treatment, supporting lack of function for the altered BRCA2 protein in these cells. Finally, this study demonstrates that any variant leading to expression of only BRCA2 delta-exon 3 will be associated with an increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer.

A one-step prescreening for point mutations and large rearrangement in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes using quantitative polymerase chain reaction and high-resolution melting curve analysis.

High-resolution melting (HRM) of DNA is a versatile method for mutation scanning that monitors the fluorescence of double-strand DNA with saturating dye. Performing HRM on a real-time thermocycler enables semiquantitative analysis (quantitative polymerase chain reaction, qPCR) to be associated to HRM analysis for detection of both large gene rearrangements and point mutations (qPCR-HRM). We evaluated this method of mutation screening for the two major breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. Screening of these two genes is time-consuming and must include exploration of large rearrangements that represent 5% to 15% of the alterations observed in these genes. To assess the reliability of the HRM technology, 201 known nucleotide variations scattered over all amplicons were tested. The sensitivity of qPCR was evaluated by analyzing seven large rearrangements. All previously identified variants tested were detected by qPCR-HRM. A retrospective study was done with 45 patients: qPCR-HRM allowed all the variants previously tested by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography to be identified. qPCR analysis showed three cases of allele dropout (due to a 104-bp deletion, SNP primer mismatch, and an Alu insertion). A prospective study was done with 165 patients allowing 22 deleterious mutations, 16 unclassified variants, and 2 rearrangements to be detected. qPCR-HRM is a simple, sensitive, and fast method that does not require modified PCR primers. Thus, this method allows in one step the detection of point mutation, gene rearrangements, and prevention of missing a mutation due to primer mismatch.