A comparative network analysis of eating disorder psychopathology and co-occurring depression and anxiety symptoms before and after treatment.

BACKGROUND: Network analysis is an emerging approach in the study of psychopathology, yet few applications have been seen in eating disorders (EDs). Furthermore, little research exists regarding changes in network strength after interventions. Therefore the present study examined the network structures of ED and co-occurring depression and anxiety symptoms before and after treatment for EDs. METHOD: Participants from residential or partial hospital ED treatment programs (N = 446) completed assessments upon admission and discharge. Networks were estimated using regularized Graphical Gaussian Models using 38 items from the Eating Disorders Examination-Questionnaire, Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. RESULTS: ED symptoms with high centrality indices included a desire to lose weight, guilt about eating, shape overvaluation, and wanting an empty stomach, while restlessness, self-esteem, lack of energy, and feeling overwhelmed bridged ED to depression and anxiety symptoms. Comparisons between admission and discharge networks indicated the global network strength did not change significantly, though symptom severity decreased. Participants with denser networks at admission evidenced less change in ED symptomatology during treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that symptoms related to shape and weight concerns and guilt are central ED symptoms, while physical symptoms, self-esteem, and feeling overwhelmed are links that may underlie comorbidities in EDs. Results provided some support for the validity of network approaches, in that admission networks conveyed prognostic information. However, the lack of correspondence between symptom reduction and change in network strength indicates that future research is needed to examine network dynamics in the context of intervention and relapse prevention.

Scrupulosity, Religious Affiliation and Symptom Presentation in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Scrupulosity is a common yet understudied presentation of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) that is characterized by obsessions and compulsions focused on religion. Despite the clinical relevance of scrupulosity to some presentations of OCD, little is known about the association between scrupulosity and symptom severity across religious groups. AIMS: The present study examined the relationship between (a) religious affiliation and OCD symptoms, (b) religious affiliation and scrupulosity, and (c) scrupulosity and OCD symptoms across religious affiliations. METHOD: One-way ANOVAs, Pearson correlations and regression-based moderation analyses were conducted to evaluate these relationships in 180 treatment-seeking adults with OCD who completed measures of scrupulosity and OCD symptom severity. RESULTS: Scrupulosity, but not OCD symptoms in general, differed across religious affiliations. Individuals who identified as Catholic reported the highest level of scrupulosity relative to individuals who identified as Protestant, Jewish or having no religion. Scrupulosity was associated with OCD symptom severity globally and across symptom dimensions, and the magnitude of these relationships differed by religious affiliation. CONCLUSIONS: Findings are discussed in terms of the dimensionality of scrupulosity, need for further assessment instruments, implications for assessment and intervention, and the consideration of religious identity in treatment.

Affective predictors of the severity and change in eating psychopathology in residential eating disorder treatment: The role of social anxiety.

Despite evidence documenting relationships between eating disorder (ED) psychopathology, depression, and anxiety, little is known regarding how social anxiety is related to ED symptoms in treatment. Therefore this study examined associations between depression, general anxiety, social anxiety, and ED psychopathology at the beginning and end of treatment (EOT) among patients (N = 380) treated in a residential ED program. Participants completed measures of ED psychopathology and affective variables. Higher depression and general anxiety, but not social anxiety, were related to higher ED psychopathology at baseline. However, social anxiety emerged as a unique predictor of ED psychopathology at EOT such that participants with higher social anxiety evidenced less improvement in ED psychopathology. Findings suggest that social anxiety has specific relevance to treatment in EDs, which may reflect shared mechanisms and underlying deficits in emotion regulation.

Male clinical norms and sex differences on the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) and Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q).

OBJECTIVE: Evidence indicates that males account for a significant minority of patients with eating disorders (EDs). However, prior research has been limited by inclusion of small and predominantly non-clinical samples of males. This study aimed to (1) provide male clinical norms for widely used ED measures (Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire [EDE-Q] and Eating Disorder Inventory-3 [EDI-3]) and (2) examine sex differences in overall ED psychopathology. METHOD: Participants were 386 male and 1,487 female patients with an ED diagnosis aged 16 years and older who completed the EDE-Q and EDI-3 upon admission to a residential or partial hospital ED treatment program. RESULTS: Normative data were calculated for the EDE-Q (global and subscales) and the EDI-3 (drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and bulimia). Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) used to examine sex, ED diagnosis, and their interaction in relation to overall ED psychopathology revealed a consistent pattern of greater severity among females for ED psychopathology. DISCUSSION: This study provides clinical norms on the EDE-Q and the EDI-3 for males with clinically diagnosed EDs. It is unclear whether the greater severity observed in females reflects qualitative differences in ED presentation or true quantitative differences in ED severity. Additional research examining the underlying nature of these differences and utilizing male-specific ED measures with clinical samples is warranted.

Residential treatment outcomes for adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

OBJECTIVE: We examined outcomes from a residential treatment program emphasizing exposure and response prevention (ERP) to determine if the typically robust response to this treatment in outpatient settings extends to patients treated in this unique context. METHOD: One hundred and seventy-two adolescents with primary Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) completed measures at admission and discharge. Almost all (92.4%) participants had at least two diagnoses and nearly half (44.2%) had three or more. Treatment consisted of intensive ERP (i.e., approximately 26.5 hr per week), additional cognitive behavioral therapy interventions, and medication management within a residential setting. In contrast to the samples reported on in the vast majority of other pediatric OCD trials, participants in the current study were living apart from their families and were immersed within the treatment setting, with staff members available at all times. RESULTS: Paired sample t-tests revealed significant decreases in OCD and depression severity. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that residential treatment for adolescents with OCD using a multimodal approach emphasizing ERP can be effective for complex cases with significant comorbidity. Results were comparable with several randomized controlled trials.

Investigating Treatment Outcomes Across OCD Symptom Dimensions in a Clinical Sample of OCD Patients.

Despite the heterogeneous nature of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), many self-report assessments do not adequately capture the clinical picture presenting within each symptom dimension, particularly unacceptable thoughts (UTs). In addition, obsessions and ordering/arranging compulsions are often underrepresented in samples of treatment outcome studies for OCD. Such methodological discrepancies may obscure research findings comparing treatment outcomes across OCD symptom dimensions. This study aimed to improve upon previous research by investigating treatment outcomes across OCD symptom dimensions using the Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale, which offers a more comprehensive assessment of UTs. The study included a primarily residential sample of 134 OCD patients. Results indicated that there were no significant differences in treatment outcomes across symptom dimensions. However, the severity of UTs remained significantly greater than other symptom dimensions at both admission and discharge. Thus, it is possible that UTs may exhibit uniquely impairing features, compared with other symptom dimensions. It is also possible that these findings may reflect the characteristics of the residential OCD samples. These speculations as well as implications for OCD treatment and future research are discussed.

Predictors of quality of life and functional impairment in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is the 10th leading cause of disability among health conditions; yet, relatively little research has focused on quality of life (QOL) and functional impairment in OCD. The present study extended existing work by examining correlates and predictors of QOL and functional impairment in 96 treatment-seeking OCD patients (in intensive outpatient and residential settings). In a model including OCD symptoms and related phenomena, and symptoms of depression and anxiety, two main findings emerged: (a) depressive symptoms predicted both QOL and functional impairment, and (b) contamination symptoms predicted functional impairment. These findings are discussed in terms of the implications for studying QOL and functional impairment in OCD. Future research should investigate the factors that predict changes in QOL and functional impairment following treatment.

Treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder complicated by comorbid eating disorders.

PURPOSE: Eating disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) commonly co-occur, but there is little data for how to treat these complex cases. To address this gap, we examined the naturalistic outcome of 56 patients with both disorders, who received a multimodal treatment program designed to address both problems simultaneously. METHODS: A residential treatment program developed a cognitive-behavioral approach for patients with both OCD and an eating disorder by integrating exposure and response prevention (ERP) treatment for OCD with ERP strategies targeting eating pathology. Patients also received a supervised eating plan, medication management, and social support. At admission and discharge, patients completed validated measures of OCD severity (the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale--Self Report [Y-BOCS-SR]), eating disorder severity (the Eating Disorders Examination-Questionnaire), and depressive severity (the Beck Depression Inventory II [BDI-II]). Body mass index (BMI) was also measured. Paired-sample t-tests examined change on these measures. MAIN RESULTS: Between 2006 and 2011, 56 individuals completed all study measures at admission and discharge. Mean length of stay was 57 days (SD = 27). Most (89%) were on psychiatric medications. Significant decreases were observed in OCD severity, eating disorder severity, and depression. Those with bulimia nervosa showed more improvement than those with anorexia nervosa. BMI significantly increased, primarily among those underweight at admission. CONCLUSION: Simultaneous treatment of OCD and eating disorders using a multimodal approach that emphasizes ERP techniques for both OCD and eating disorders can be an effective treatment strategy for these complex cases.

Job stress and dyadic synchrony in police marriages: a preliminary investigation.

Despite reports documenting adverse effects of stress on police marriages, few empirical studies focus on actual emotional behaviors of officers and spouses. In this preliminary investigation, 17 male police officers and their nonpolice wives completed daily stress diaries for 1 week and then participated in a laboratory-based discussion about their respective days. Conversations were video-recorded and coded for specific emotional behaviors reflecting hostility and affection, which are strong predictors of marital outcomes. We examined associations between officers' job stress (per diaries and the Police Stress Survey) and couples' emotional behavior (mean levels and behavioral synchrony) using a dyadic repeated measures design capitalizing on the large number of observations available for each couple (1020 observations). When officers reported more job stress, they showed less hostility, less synchrony with their wives' hostility, and more synchrony with their wives' affection; their wives showed greater synchrony with officers' hostility and less synchrony with officers' affection. Therefore, for officers, greater job stress was associated with less behavioral negativity, potentially less attunement to wives' negativity, but potentially greater attunement to wives' affection-perhaps a compensatory strategy or attempt to buffer their marriage from stress. These attempts may be less effective, however, if, as our synchrony findings may suggest, wives are focusing on officers' hostility rather than affection. Although it will be important to replicate these results given the small sample, our findings reveal that patterns of behavioral synchrony may be a key means to better understand how job stress exacts a toll on police marriages.

Transgender and Gender Diverse Patients in Intensive Mood Disorder Treatment: A Comparative Examination of Clinical Presentation and Treatment Outcomes.

Individuals who are transgender and gender diverse (TGD) are more likely to suffer from and to seek mental health services for mood disorders. Some literature suggests that TGD individuals, because of pervasive and systemic minority stress, may have more complex clinical presentations (i.e., psychiatric conditions and severity of symptoms) and may benefit from empirically based treatments to a lesser degree than their cisgender peers. However, research has yet to examine individuals who are TGD receiving treatment in specialized, intensive mood disorder treatment despite the propensity for them to be diagnosed with and treated for mood disorders. Using a sample of 1,326 adult patients in intensive mood disorder treatment (3.8% TGD), the clinical presentation and treatment outcomes were compared between patients who are TGD and cisgender. Contrary to previous research, TGD patients were largely similar if not healthier than their cisgender counterparts, including similar depression severity, quality of life, emotion dysregulation, and behavioral activation, and less severe rumination at admission. Despite similar to better reported mental health symptoms, TGD patients were diagnosed with more psychiatric conditions overall, including greater prevalence of social anxiety and neurodevelopmental diagnoses. Those who are TGD did not experience attenuated treatment response as predicted. Findings suggest that patients in intensive mood disorder treatment who are TGD may be more resilient than previously assumed, or supports may have increased to buffer effects of stigma on mental health, and emphasize the need to exercise discretion and sensitivity in diagnostic practices to prevent over-diagnosis and pathologizing of TGD individuals.

The effects of depression on the treatment of OCD in a residential sample.

Studies investigating the impact of depressive symptoms on obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) treatment have yielded mixed findings. The purpose of the study is to extend previous research, which primarily used outpatient samples, to determine whether depression affects OCD treatment outcome among patients receiving intensive residential treatment. OCD patients receiving residential treatment based primarily on exposure and response prevention (ERP) provided data regarding symptoms of depression and OCD at admission and discharge. Patients reported large and significant reductions in OCD symptoms over the course of treatment. Change in OCD symptoms was not significantly affected by depressive symptoms, including patients with severe depressive symptoms. Change in depressive symptoms over the course of treatment was, however, robustly related to change in OCD symptoms, especially among patients who began treatment with severe symptoms of depression. These findings suggest that cognitive-behavior therapy delivered in a residential treatment setting drastically reduces OCD symptoms regardless of depressive symptoms.

Does Exposure and Response Prevention Behaviorally Activate Patients With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder? A Preliminary Test.

Exposure and response prevention (ERP) and behavioral activation (BA) are effective treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and depression, respectively. Patients with OCD often exhibit depression; furthermore, ERP for OCD is associated with reduced depressive symptoms. To our knowledge, no study has examined whether ERP itself functions to behaviorally activate patients with concurrent OCD and depressive symptoms. This prospective study was designed to test the hypotheses that (a) OCD exposure hierarchy completion, increased BA, and depressive symptom reduction would all be related, and (b) pre- to posttreatment changes in BA would mediate the direct effect of OCD hierarchy completion on posttreatment depressive symptoms, even after controlling for pretreatment depressive symptoms, pretreatment BA, pre- to posttreatment reductions in OCD symptoms, treatment duration, and antidepressant medication use. Patients (N = 90) with a primary diagnosis of OCD who received residential ERP for OCD completed a self-report battery at pre- and posttreatment. Exposure hierarchy completion, increases in BA, and decreases in depression were all significantly correlated (rs ranged .33 to .44). The effect of hierarchy completion on posttreatment depressive symptoms was fully mediated by pre- to posttreatment changes in BA. Findings highlight the potential for ERP to exert antidepressant effects by behaviorally activating patients. Limitations, clinical implications, and future directions are discussed.

Predictors of concurrent depressive symptoms in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Many patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) exhibit concurrent depressive symptoms, which are associated with negative psychological outcomes. Yet little research has focused on identifying factors that predict depressive symptoms in OCD. The current study examined three transdiagnostic constructs-anxiety sensitivity (AS), intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and worry-as predictors of depressive symptom severity in a sample of treatment-seeking adults with a primary diagnosis of OCD (N = 93). Strong, positive associations between depressive symptoms and measures of AS, IU, and worry were detected, and AS and worry (but not IU) remained significant unique predictors of depression after controlling for the severity of OCD symptoms. The conceptual and clinical implications of these findings, as well as study limitations and future directions, are discussed.

Behavioral Activation as a Mechanism of Change in Residential Treatment for Mood Problems: A Growth Curve Model Analysis.

Research on the efficacy, effectiveness, and dissemination potential of behavioral activation (BA)-focused interventions for depression and comorbid disorders has expanded rapidly. However, research that examines how BA interventions work has seen less growth. A primary purported mechanism of BA is activation, which reflects a person's meaningful (re)engagement in life. BA theory posits that depression will decrease as activation increases, and that changes in the mechanism variable will lead to changes in outcome. The current study aims to investigate activation as a potential mechanism of change in the context of a BA-focused residential treatment intervention for mood problems using repeated measures of self-reported activation and depression from a large comorbid sample (N = 578). Growth curve modeling was used to examine between-person differences in within-person change over time. Findings suggest that self-reported activation increases and depression decreases over time. Moreover, results show both linear and quadratic growth and that the rate of change in activation predicts the rate of change of depression. BA-focused residential treatment may facilitate activation, which exerts an effect on depression among residents with diagnostically complex presentations.

Anxiety sensitivity as a predictor of outcome in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: To address the fact that not all individuals who receive cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) exhibit complete symptom reduction, research has examined factors that predict outcome; however, no studies have examined anxiety sensitivity (AS) as a predictor of outcome of CBT for OCD. AS refers to the fear of anxious arousal that results from mistaken beliefs about the dangerousness of anxiety-related body sensations. It is important to understand whether AS influences OCD treatment outcome, considering that (a) some obsessions directly relate to AS, and (b) OCD patients with high AS may be reluctant to engage in anxiety-provoking components of CBT for OCD. METHODS: Patients (N = 187) with a primary diagnosis of OCD who received residential CBT for OCD participated in this study, which involved completing a self-report battery at pre- and post-treatment. RESULTS: Results supported study hypotheses, in that (a) baseline AS positively correlated with baseline OCD severity, and (b) greater baseline AS prospectively predicted higher posttreatment OCD symptom severity even after controlling for pretreatment OCD and depression severity. LIMITATIONS: The study was limited by its use of an older measure of AS, reliance on self-report measures, and nonstandardized treatment across participants. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of AS in the nature and treatment of OCD. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.

Predictors of illness anxiety symptoms in patients with obsessive compulsive disorder.

Illness anxiety and OCD symptoms appear to overlap in their presentation as well as in other conceptually important ways (e.g., dysfunctional cognitions). Little research, however, has directly examined these putative relationships. The present study examined the extent to which illness anxiety symptoms were associated with OCD symptom dimensions and relevant cognitive factors in a large treatment-seeking sample of patients with OCD. Patients completed a battery of self-report measures of OCD and health anxiety symptoms and related cognitive biases. Results from regression analyses indicated that illness anxiety symptoms were associated with harm obsessions and checking rituals, as well as with the tendency to overestimate threat and responsibility for harm. Illness anxiety was not associated with perfectionism. Conceptual and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Secondary Psychometric Examination of the Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale: Classical Testing, Item Response Theory, and Differential Item Functioning.

The Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (DOCS) is a promising measure of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms but has received minimal psychometric attention. We evaluated the utility and reliability of DOCS scores. The study included 832 students and 300 patients with OCD. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the originally proposed four-factor structure. DOCS total and subscale scores exhibited good to excellent internal consistency in both samples (α = .82 to α = .96). Patient DOCS total scores reduced substantially during treatment (t = 16.01, d = 1.02). DOCS total scores discriminated between students and patients (sensitivity = 0.76, 1 - specificity = 0.23). The measure did not exhibit gender-based differential item functioning as tested by Mantel-Haenszel chi-square tests. Expected response options for each item were plotted as a function of item response theory and demonstrated that DOCS scores incrementally discriminate OCD symptoms ranging from low to extremely high severity. Incremental differences in DOCS scores appear to represent unbiased and reliable differences in true OCD symptom severity.

Just to be certain: Confirming the factor structure of the intolerance of uncertainty scale in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) is a cognitive construct in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); yet no studies exist confirming the factor structure of the most widely used measure of IU, the intolerance of uncertainty scale (IUS), in OCD patients. Moreover, no studies have examined how scores on this measure relate to OCD symptom dimensions. Accordingly, the present study examined a 12-item two-factor revised version of the IUS (IUS-12) in 205 OCD patients. Confirmatory factor analysis verified the scale's two-factor structure. The measure also demonstrated high internal consistency and the IUS-12 was correlated moderately with another self-report measure of IU. Finally, theoretically consistent and specific relationships emerged between the IUS-12 and OCD symptom dimensions. These findings are discussed in terms of implications for the assessment and treatment of OCD, and specifically how elevated scores on the IUS-12 subscales may be utilized to identify subtleties in the presentation of OCD-related problems with IU.