Lipocalin-2-mediated astrocyte pyroptosis promotes neuroinflammatory injury via NLRP3 inflammasome activation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury.

BACKGROUND: Neuroinflammation is a vital pathophysiological process during ischemic stroke. Activated astrocytes play a major role in inflammation. Lipocalin-2 (LCN2), secreted by activated astrocytes, promotes neuroinflammation. Pyroptosis is a pro-inflammatory form of programmed cell death that has emerged as a new area of research in stroke. Nevertheless, the potential role of LCN2 in astrocyte pyroptosis remains unclear. METHODS: An ischemic stroke model was established by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in vivo. In this study, in vitro, oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (O/R) were applied to cultured astrocytes. 24p3R (the LCN2 receptor) was inhibited by astrocyte-specific adeno-associated virus (AAV-GFAP-24p3Ri). MCC950 and Nigericin sodium salt (Nig) were used to inhibit or promote the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome pharmacologically, respectively. Histological and biochemical analyses were performed to assess astrocyte and neuron death. Additionally, the neurological deficits of mice were evaluated. RESULTS: LCN2 expression was significantly induced in astrocytes 24 h after stroke onset in the mouse MCAO model. Lcn2 knockout (Lcn2-/-) mice exhibited reduced infarct volume and improved neurological and cognitive functions after MCAO. LCN2 and its receptor 24p3R were colocalized in astrocytes. Mechanistically, suppression of 24p3R by AAV-GFAP-24p3Ri alleviated pyroptosis-related pore formation and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines via LCN2, which was then reversed by Nig-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Astrocyte pyroptosis was exacerbated in Lcn2-/- mice by intracerebroventricular administration of recombinant LCN2 (rLCN2), while this aggravation was restricted by blocking 24p3R or inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation with MCC950. CONCLUSION: LCN2/24p3R mediates astrocyte pyroptosis via NLRP3 inflammasome activation following cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Extracellular vesicles carrying proinflammatory factors may spread atherosclerosis to remote locations.

Most cells involved in atherosclerosis release extracellular vesicles (EVs), which can carry bioactive substances to downstream tissues via circulation. We hypothesized that EVs derived from atherosclerotic plaques could promote atherogenesis in remote locations, a mechanism that mimics the blood metastasis of cancer. Ldlr gene knockout (Ldlr KO) rats were fed on a high cholesterol diet and underwent partial carotid ligation to induce local atherosclerosis. EVs were separated from carotid artery tissues and downstream blood of carotid ligation by centrifugation. MiRNA sequencing and qPCR were then performed to detect miRNA differences in EVs from rats with and without induced carotid atherosclerosis. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that EVs derived from atherosclerosis could increase the expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin in endothelial cells in vitro. EVs derived from atherosclerosis contained a higher level of miR-23a-3p than those derived from controls. MiR-23a-3p could promote endothelial inflammation by targeting Dusp5 and maintaining ERK1/2 phosphorylation in vitro. Inhibiting EV release could attenuate atherogenesis and reduce macrophage infiltration in vivo. Intravenously administrating atherosclerotic plaque-derived EVs could induce intimal inflammation, arterial wall thickening and lumen narrowing in the carotids of Ldlr KO rats, while simultaneous injection of miR-23a-3p antagomir could reverse this reaction. The results suggested that EVs may transfer atherosclerosis to remote locations by carrying proinflammatory factors, particularly miR-23a-3p.

TAK1 mediates neuronal pyroptosis in early brain injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Innate immunity can facilitate early brain injury (EBI) following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Numerous studies suggest that pyroptosis could exacerbate extracellular immune responses by promoting secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Transforming growth factor-ß-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) is a quintessential kinase that positively regulates inflammation through NF-κB and MAPK signaling cascades. However, the effects of TAK1 on neuroinflammation in EBI following SAH are largely unknown. METHODS: Two hundred and forty-six male C57BL/6J mice were subjected to the endovascular perforation model of SAH. A selective TAK1 inhibitor, 5Z-7-oxozeaenol (OZ) was administered by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) injection at 30 min after SAH induction. To genetic knockdown of TAK1, small interfering RNA (siRNA) was i.c.v injected at 48 h before SAH induction. SAH grade, brain water content, BBB permeability, neurological score, western blot, real-time PCR, ELISA, transmission electron microscope, and immunofluorescence staining were performed. Long-term behavioral sequelae were evaluated by the rotarod and Morris water maze tests. Furthermore, OZ was added to the culture medium with oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) to mimic SAH in vitro. The reactive oxygen species level was detected by DCFH-DA staining. Lysosomal integrity was assessed by Lyso-Tracker Red staining and Acridine Orange staining. RESULTS: The neuronal phosphorylated TAK1 expression was upregulated following SAH. Pharmacologic inhibition of TAK1 with OZ could alleviate neurological deficits, brain edema, and brain-blood barrier (BBB) disruption at 24 h after SAH. In addition, OZ administration restored long-term neurobehavioral function. Furthermore, blockade of TAK1 dampened neuronal pyroptosis by downregulating the N-terminal fragment of GSDMD (GSDMD-N) expression and IL-1ß/IL-18 production. Mechanistically, both in vivo and in vitro, we demonstrated that TAK1 can induce neuronal pyroptosis through promoting nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 and activating nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. TAK1 siRNA treatment mitigated SAH-induced neurobehavioral deficits and restrained phosphorylated NF-κB p65 expression and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. TAK1 blockade also ameliorated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and prevented lysosomal cathepsin B releasing into the cytoplasm. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that TAK1 modulates NLRP3-mediated neuronal pyroptosis in EBI following SAH. Inhibition of TAK1 may serve as a potential candidate to relieve neuroinflammatory responses triggered by SAH.

Low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) regulates NLRP3-mediated neuronal pyroptosis following cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury.

BACKGROUND: Inflammatory response has been recognized as a pivotal pathophysiological process during cerebral ischemic stroke. NLRP3 inflammasome, involved in the regulation of inflammatory cascade, can simultaneously lead to GSDMD-executed pyroptosis in cerebral ischemia. Low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), responsible for cholesterol uptake, was noted to exert potential anti-inflammatory bioactivities. Nevertheless, the role of LDLR in neuroinflammation mobilized by cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) has not been investigated. METHODS: Ischemic stroke mice model was accomplished by middle cerebral artery occlusion. Oxygen-glucose deprivation was employed after primary cortical neuron was extracted and cultured. A pharmacological inhibitor of NLRP3 (CY-09) was administered to suppress NLPR3 activation. Histological and biochemical analysis were performed to assess the neuronal death both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, neurological deficits and behavioral deterioration were evaluated in mice. RESULTS: The expression of LDLR was downregulated following cerebral I/R injury. Genetic knockout of Ldlr enhanced caspase-1-dependent cleavage of GSDMD and resulted in severe neuronal pyroptosis. LDLR deficiency contributed to excessive NLRP3-mediated maturation and release of IL-1ß and IL-18 under in vitro and in vivo ischemic conditions. These influences ultimately led to aggravated neurological deficits and long-term cognitive dysfunction. Blockade of NLRP3 substantially retarded neuronal pyroptosis in Ldlr-/- mice and cultured Ldlr-/- neuron after experimental stroke. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrated that LDLR modulates NLRP3-mediated neuronal pyroptosis and neuroinflammation following ischemic stroke. Our findings characterize a novel role for LDLR as a potential therapeutic target in neuroinflammatory responses to acute cerebral ischemic injury.

High-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation improves functional recovery by inhibiting neurotoxic polarization of astrocytes in ischemic rats.

BACKGROUND: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a noninvasive treatment for ischemic stroke. Astrocytes regulation has been suggested as one mechanism for rTMS effectiveness. But how rTMS regulates astrocytes remains largely undetermined. There were neurotoxic and neuroprotective phenotypes of astrocytes (also denoted as classically and alternatively activated astrocytes or A1 and A2 astrocytes) pertaining to pro- or anti-inflammatory gene expression. Pro-inflammatory or neurotoxic polarized astrocytes were induced during cerebral ischemic stroke. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of rTMS on astrocytic polarization during cerebral ischemic/reperfusion injury. METHODS: Three rTMS protocols were applied to primary astrocytes under normal and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) conditions. Cell survival, proliferation, and phenotypic changes were assessed after 2-day treatment. Astrocytes culture medium (ACM) from control, OGD/R, and OGD/R + rTMS groups were mixed with neuronal medium to culture neurons for 48 h and 7 days, in order to explore the influence on neuronal survival and synaptic plasticity. In vivo, rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), and received posterior orbital intravenous injection of ACM collected from different groups at reperfusion, and at 3 days post reperfusion. The apoptosis in the ischemic penumbra, infarct volumes, and the modified Neurological Severity Score (mNSS) were evaluated at 1 week after reperfusion, and cognitive functions were evaluated using the Morris Water Maze (MWM) tests. Finally, the 10 Hz rTMS was directly applied to MCAO rats to verify the rTMS effects on astrocytic polarization. RESULTS: Among these three frequencies, the 10 Hz protocol exerted the greatest potential to modulate astrocytic polarization after OGD/R injury. Classically activated and A1 markers were significantly inhibited by rTMS treatment. In OGD/R model, the concentration of pro-inflammatory mediator TNF-α decreased from 57.7 to 23.0 Ñ€g/mL, while anti-inflammatory mediator IL-10 increased from 99.0 to 555.1 Ñ€g/mL in the ACM after rTMS treatment. The ACM collected from rTMS-treated astrocytes significantly alleviated neuronal apoptosis induced by OGD/R injury, and promoted neuronal plasticity. In MCAO rat model, the ACM collected from rTMS treatment decreased neuronal apoptosis and infarct volumes, and improved cognitive functions. The neurotoxic astrocytes were simultaneously inhibited after rTMS treatment. CONCLUSION: Inhibition of neurotoxic astrocytic polarization is a potential mechanism for the effectiveness of high-frequency rTMS in cerebral ischemic stroke.

Lipocalin-2 may produce damaging effect after cerebral ischemia by inducing astrocytes classical activation.

BACKGROUND: Functions of astrocytes in the rehabilitation after ischemic stroke, especially their impacts on inflammatory processes, remain controversial. This study uncovered two phenotypes of astrocytes, of which one was helpful, and the other harmful to anoxic neurons after brain ischemia. METHODS: We tested the levels of inflammatory factors including TNF-a, IL-6, IL-10, iNOS, IL-1beta, and CXCL10 in primary astrocytes at 0 h, 6 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h after OGD, grouped the hypoxia astrocytes into iNOS-positive (iNOS(+)) and iNOS-negative (iNOS(-)) by magnetic bead sorting, and then co-cultured the two groups of cells with OGD-treated neurons for 24 h. We further verified the polarization of astrocytes in vivo by detecting the co-localization of iNOS, GFAP, and Iba-1 on MCAO brain sections. Lentivirus overexpressing LCN2 and LCN2 knockout mice (#024630. JAX, USA) were used to explore the role of LCN2 in the functional polarization of astrocytes. 7.0-T MRI scanning and the modified Neurological Severity Score (mNSS) were used to evaluate the neurological outcomes of the mice. RESULTS: After oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD), iNOS mRNA expression increased to the peak at 6 h in primary astrocytes, but keep baseline expression in LCN2-knockout astrocytes. In mice with transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO), LCN2 was proved necessary for astrocyte classical activation. In LCN2 knockout mice with MCAO, no classically activated astrocytes were detected, and smaller infarct volumes and better neurological functions were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated a novel pattern of astrocyte activation after ischemic stroke and lipocalin-2 (LCN2) plays a key role in polarizing and activating astrocytes.

TREM-1 Exacerbates Neuroinflammatory Injury via NLRP3 Inflammasome-Mediated Pyroptosis in Experimental Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.

Neuroinflammation contributes to the pathogenesis of early brain injury induced by subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Previous reports have demonstrated that triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM-1) regulates inflammatory response caused by ischemic stroke or myocardial infarction. However, whether TREM-1 could modulate neuroinflammation after SAH remains largely unknown. Here, using a mouse model of SAH, we found that the expression of TREM-1 was mainly located in microglia cells and increased to peak at 24 h following SAH. Then, TREM-1 antagonist or mimic was intranasally administrated to investigate its effect on SAH. TREM-1 inhibition with LP17 improved neurological deficits, mitigated brain water content, and preserved brain-blood barrier integrity 24 h after SAH, whereas recombinant TREM-1, a mimic of TREM-1, deteriorated these outcomes. In addition, LP17 administration restored long-term sensorimotor coordination and cognitive deficits. Pharmacological blockade of TREM-1 reduced TUNEL-positive and FJC-positive neurons, and CD68-stained microglia in ipsilateral cerebral cortex. Neutrophil invasion was inhibited as protein level of myeloperoxidase (MPO), and MPO-positive cells were both decreased. Moreover, we found that LP17 treatment ameliorated microglial pyroptosis by diminishing levels of N-terminal fragment of GSDMD (GSDMD-N) and IL-1ß production. Mechanistically, both in vivo and in vitro, we depicted that TREM-1 can trigger microglial pyroptosis via activating NLRP3 inflammasome. In conclusion, our results revealed the critical role of TREM-1 in neuroinflammation following SAH, suggesting that TREM-1 inhibition might be a potential therapeutic approach for SAH.

Aberrant oligodendroglial LDL receptor orchestrates demyelination in chronic cerebral ischemia.

Oligodendrocytes express low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) to endocytose cholesterol for the maintenance of adulthood myelination. However, the potential role of LDLR in chronic cerebral ischemia-related demyelination remains unclear. We used bilateral carotid artery stenosis (BCAS) to induce sustained cerebral ischemia in mice. This hypoxic-ischemic injury caused a remarkable decrease in oligodendroglial LDLR, with impaired oligodendroglial differentiation and survival. Oligodendroglial cholesterol levels, however, remained unchanged. Mouse miR-344e-3p and the human homolog miR-410-3p, 2 miRNAs directly targeting Ldlr, were identified in experimental and clinical leukoaraiosis and were thus implicated in the LDLR reduction. Lentiviral delivery of LDLR ameliorated demyelination following chronic cerebral ischemia. By contrast, Ldlr-/- mice displayed inadequate myelination in the corpus callosum. Ldlr-/- oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) exhibited reduced ability to differentiate and myelinate axons in vitro. Transplantation with Ldlr-/- OPCs could not rescue the BCAS-induced demyelination. Such LDLR-dependent myelin restoration might involve a physical interaction of the Asn-Pro-Val-Tyr (NPVY) motif with the phosphotyrosine binding domain of Shc, which subsequently activated the MEK/ERK pathway. Together, our findings demonstrate that the aberrant oligodendroglial LDLR in chronic cerebral ischemia impairs myelination through intracellular signal transduction. Preservation of oligodendroglial LDLR may provide a promising approach to treat ischemic demyelination.

Overexpression of BRCA1 in Neural Stem Cells Enhances Cell Survival and Functional Recovery after Transplantation into Experimental Ischemic Stroke.

Transplantation of neural stem cells (NSCs) is a promising therapy for ischemic stroke. However, the effectiveness of this approach is limited by grafted cell death. Breast cancer susceptibility protein 1 (BRCA1) could suppress apoptosis in neural progenitors and modulate oxidative stress in neurons. In this study, we found that BRCA1 was upregulated by oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R). Overexpression of BRCA1 in NSCs reduced cell apoptosis and oxidative stress after OGD/R insult. The molecule overexpression also stimulated cellular proliferation in OGD/R NSCs and increased the survival rate of grafted cells. Further, the transplantation of BRCA1-transfected NSCs into mice with ischemic stroke increased brain-derived neurotropic factor and nerve growth factor expression in the brain and elicited neurological function improvement. In addition, we found that RING finger domain and BRCT domain of BRCA1 could physically interact with p53 in NSCs. The cross talk between BRCA1 RING finger domain and p53 was responsible for p53 ubiquitination and degradation. Our findings indicate that modification with BRCA1 could enhance the efficacy of NSCs transplantation in ischemic stroke.

Breast cancer susceptibility protein 1 (BRCA1) rescues neurons from cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury through NRF2-mediated antioxidant pathway.

Cellular oxidative stress plays a vital role in the pathological process of neural damage in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). The breast cancer susceptibility protein 1 (BRCA1), a tumor suppressor, can modulate cellular antioxidant response and DNA repair. Yet the role of BRCA1 in cerebral I/R injury has not been explored. In this study, we observed that BRCA1 was mainly expressed in neurons and was up-regulated in response to I/R insult. Overexpression of BRCA1 attenuated reactive oxygen species production and lipid peroxidation. Enhanced BRCA1 expression promoted DNA double strand break repair through non-homologous end joining pathway. These effects consequently led to neuronal cell survival and neurological recovery. Mechanically, BRCA1 can interact with the nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (NRF2) through BRCA1 C-terminal (BRCT) domain. The cross-talk between BRCT and NRF2 activated the NRF2/Antioxidant Response Element signaling pathway and thus protected injured neurons during cerebral I/R. In conclusion, enhanced BRCA1 after cerebral I/R injury may attenuate or prevent neural damage from I/R via NRF2-mediated antioxidant pathway. The finding may provide a potential therapeutic target against ischemic stroke.

GRP78 Promotes Neural Stem Cell Antiapoptosis and Survival in Response to Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation (OGD)/Reoxygenation through PI3K/Akt, ERK1/2, and NF-κB/p65 Pathways.

When brain injury happens, endogenous neural stem cells (NSCs) located in the adult subventricular zone (SVZ) and subgranular zone (SGZ) are attacked by ischemia/reperfusion to undergo cellular apoptosis and death before being induced to migrate to the lesion point and differentiate into mature neural cells for damaged cell replacement. Although promoting antiapoptosis and NSC survival are critical to neuroregeneration, the mechanism has yet been elucidated clearly. Here in this study, we established an in vitro oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)/reoxygenation model on NSCs and detected glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) involved in apoptosis, while in the absence of GRP78 by siRNA transfection, OGD/reoxygenation triggered PI3K/Akt, ERK1/2, and NF-κB/p65 activation, and induced NSC apoptosis was attenuated. Further investigation, respectively, with the inhibitor of PI3K/Akt or ERK1/2 demonstrated a blockage on GRP78 upregulation, while the inhibition of NF-κB rarely affected GRP78 induction by OGD/reoxygenation. The results indicated the bidirectional regulations of GRP78-PI3K/Akt and GRP78-ERK1/2 and the one-way signalling transduction through GRP78 to NF-κB/p65 on NSC survival from OGD/reoxygenation. In conclusion, we found that GRP78 mediated the signalling cross talk through PI3K/Akt, ERK1/2, and NF-κB/p65, which leads to antiapoptosis and NSC survival from ischemic stroke. Our finding gives a new evidence of GRP78 in NSCs as well as a new piece of signalling mechanism elucidation to NSC survival from ischemic stroke.

Overexpression of low-density lipoprotein receptor prevents neurotoxic polarization of astrocytes via inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation in experimental ischemic stroke.

JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202502000-00027/figure1/v/2024-05-28T214302Z/r/image-tiff Neurotoxic astrocytes are a promising therapeutic target for the attenuation of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Low-density lipoprotein receptor, a classic cholesterol regulatory receptor, has been found to inhibit NLR family pyrin domain containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation in neurons following ischemic stroke and to suppress the activation of microglia and astrocytes in individuals with Alzheimer's disease. However, little is known about the effects of low-density lipoprotein receptor on astrocytic activation in ischemic stroke. To address this issue in the present study, we examined the mechanisms by which low-density lipoprotein receptor regulates astrocytic polarization in ischemic stroke models. First, we examined low-density lipoprotein receptor expression in astrocytes via immunofluorescence staining and western blotting analysis. We observed significant downregulation of low-density lipoprotein receptor following middle cerebral artery occlusion reperfusion and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation. Second, we induced the astrocyte-specific overexpression of low-density lipoprotein receptor using astrocyte-specific adeno-associated virus. Low-density lipoprotein receptor overexpression in astrocytes improved neurological outcomes in middle cerebral artery occlusion mice and reversed neurotoxic astrocytes to create a neuroprotective phenotype. Finally, we found that the overexpression of low-density lipoprotein receptor inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation in oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation injured astrocytes and that the addition of nigericin, an NLRP3 agonist, restored the neurotoxic astrocyte phenotype. These findings suggest that low-density lipoprotein receptor could inhibit the NLRP3-meidiated neurotoxic polarization of astrocytes and that increasing low-density lipoprotein receptor in astrocytes might represent a novel strategy for treating cerebral ischemic stroke.