Unconventional initiation of PINK1/Parkin mitophagy by Optineurin.

Cargo sequestration is a fundamental step of selective autophagy in which cells generate a double-membrane structure termed an "autophagosome" on the surface of cargoes. NDP52, TAX1BP1, and p62 bind FIP200, which recruits the ULK1/2 complex to initiate autophagosome formation on cargoes. How OPTN initiates autophagosome formation during selective autophagy remains unknown despite its importance in neurodegeneration. Here, we uncover an unconventional path of PINK1/Parkin mitophagy initiation by OPTN that does not begin with FIP200 binding or require the ULK1/2 kinases. Using gene-edited cell lines and in vitro reconstitutions, we show that OPTN utilizes the kinase TBK1, which binds directly to the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase complex I to initiate mitophagy. During NDP52 mitophagy initiation, TBK1 is functionally redundant with ULK1/2, classifying TBK1's role as a selective autophagy-initiating kinase. Overall, this work reveals that OPTN mitophagy initiation is mechanistically distinct and highlights the mechanistic plasticity of selective autophagy pathways.

ATG4 family proteins drive phagophore growth independently of the LC3/GABARAP lipidation system.

The sequestration of damaged mitochondria within double-membrane structures termed autophagosomes is a key step of PINK1/Parkin mitophagy. The ATG4 family of proteases are thought to regulate autophagosome formation exclusively by processing the ubiquitin-like ATG8 family (LC3/GABARAPs). We discover that human ATG4s promote autophagosome formation independently of their protease activity and of ATG8 family processing. ATG4 proximity networks reveal a role for ATG4s and their proximity partners, including the immune-disease protein LRBA, in ATG9A vesicle trafficking to mitochondria. Artificial intelligence-directed 3D electron microscopy of phagophores shows that ATG4s promote phagophore-ER contacts during the lipid-transfer phase of autophagosome formation. We also show that ATG8 removal during autophagosome maturation does not depend on ATG4 activity. Instead, ATG4s can disassemble ATG8-protein conjugates, revealing a role for ATG4s as deubiquitinating-like enzymes. These findings establish non-canonical roles of the ATG4 family beyond the ATG8 lipidation axis and provide an AI-driven framework for rapid 3D electron microscopy.

Targeted deletion of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 4 from proximal tubules is dispensable for diabetic kidney disease development.

BACKGROUND: The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase isoform 4 (Nox4) mediates reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and renal fibrosis in diabetic kidney disease (DKD) at the level of the podocyte. However, the mitochondrial localization of Nox4 and its role as a mitochondrial bioenergetic sensor has recently been reported. Whether Nox4 drives pathology in DKD within the proximal tubular compartment, which is densely packed with mitochondria, is not yet known. METHODS: We generated a proximal tubular-specific Nox4 knockout mouse model by breeding Nox4flox/flox mice with mice expressing Cre recombinase under the control of the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 promoter. Subsets of Nox4ptKO mice and their Nox4flox/flox littermates were injected with streptozotocin (STZ) to induce diabetes. Mice were followed for 20 weeks and renal injury was assessed. RESULTS: Genetic ablation of proximal tubular Nox4 (Nox4ptKO) resulted in no change in renal function and histology. Nox4ptKO mice and Nox4flox/flox littermates injected with STZ exhibited the hallmarks of DKD, including hyperfiltration, albuminuria, renal fibrosis and glomerulosclerosis. Surprisingly, diabetes-induced renal injury was not improved in Nox4ptKO STZ mice compared with Nox4flox/flox STZ mice. Although diabetes conferred ROS overproduction and increased the mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate, proximal tubular deletion of Nox4 did not normalize oxidative stress or mitochondrial bioenergetics. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results demonstrate that genetic deletion of Nox4 from the proximal tubules does not influence DKD development, indicating that Nox4 localization within this highly energetic compartment is dispensable for chronic kidney disease pathogenesis in the setting of diabetes.

Exploring the role of the metabolite-sensing receptor GPR109a in diabetic nephropathy.

Alterations in gut homeostasis may contribute to the progression of diabetic nephropathy. There has been recent attention on the renoprotective effects of metabolite-sensing receptors in chronic renal injury, including the G protein-coupled receptor (GPR)109a, which ligates the short-chain fatty acid butyrate. However, the role of GPR109a in the development of diabetic nephropathy, a milieu of diminished microbiome-derived metabolites, has not yet been determined. The present study aimed to assess the effects of insufficient GPR109a signaling, via genetic deletion of GPR109a, on the development of renal injury in diabetic nephropathy. Gpr109a-/- mice or their wild-type littermates (Gpr109a+/+) were rendered diabetic with streptozotocin. Mice received a control diet or an isocaloric high-fiber diet (12.5% resistant starch) for 24 wk, and gastrointestinal permeability and renal injury were determined. Diabetes was associated with increased albuminuria, glomerulosclerosis, and inflammation. In comparison, Gpr109a-/- mice with diabetes did not show an altered renal phenotype. Resistant starch supplementation did not afford protection from renal injury in diabetic nephropathy. While diabetes was associated with alterations in intestinal morphology, intestinal permeability assessed in vivo using the FITC-dextran test was unaltered. GPR109a deletion did not worsen gastrointestinal permeability. Furthermore, 12.5% resistant starch supplementation, at physiological concentrations, had no effect on intestinal permeability or morphology. The results of this study indicate that GPR109a does not play a critical role in intestinal homeostasis in a model of type 1 diabetes or in the development of diabetic nephropathy.

Delineating a role for the mitochondrial permeability transition pore in diabetic kidney disease by targeting cyclophilin D.

Mitochondrial stress has been widely observed in diabetic kidney disease (DKD). Cyclophilin D (CypD) is a functional component of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) which allows the exchange of ions and solutes between the mitochondrial matrix to induce mitochondrial swelling and activation of cell death pathways. CypD has been successfully targeted in other disease contexts to improve mitochondrial function and reduced pathology. Two approaches were used to elucidate the role of CypD and the mPTP in DKD. Firstly, mice with a deletion of the gene encoding CypD (Ppif-/-) were rendered diabetic with streptozotocin (STZ) and followed for 24 weeks. Secondly, Alisporivir, a CypD inhibitor was administered to the db/db mouse model (5 mg/kg/day oral gavage for 16 weeks). Ppif-/- mice were not protected against diabetes-induced albuminuria and had greater glomerulosclerosis than their WT diabetic littermates. Renal hyperfiltration was lower in diabetic Ppif-/- as compared with WT mice. Similarly, Alisporivir did not improve renal function nor pathology in db/db mice as assessed by no change in albuminuria, KIM-1 excretion and glomerulosclerosis. Db/db mice exhibited changes in mitochondrial function, including elevated respiratory control ratio (RCR), reduced mitochondrial H2O2 generation and increased proximal tubular mitochondrial volume, but these were unaffected by Alisporivir treatment. Taken together, these studies indicate that CypD has a complex role in DKD and direct targeting of this component of the mPTP will likely not improve renal outcomes.

Correction to: The Mitochondria-Targeted Methylglyoxal Sequestering Compound, MitoGamide, Is Cardioprotective in the Diabetic Heart.

The article "The Mitochondria-Targeted Methylglyoxal Sequestering Compound, MitoGamide, Is Cardioprotective in the Diabetic Heart".

The Mitochondria-Targeted Methylglyoxal Sequestering Compound, MitoGamide, Is Cardioprotective in the Diabetic Heart.

PURPOSE: Methylglyoxal, a by-product of glycolysis and a precursor in the formation of advanced glycation end-products, is significantly elevated in the diabetic myocardium. Therefore, we sought to investigate the mitochondria-targeted methylglyoxal scavenger, MitoGamide, in an experimental model of spontaneous diabetic cardiomyopathy. METHODS: Male 6-week-old Akita or wild type mice received daily oral gavage of MitoGamide or vehicle for 10 weeks. Several morphological and systemic parameters were assessed, as well as cardiac function by echocardiography. RESULTS: Akita mice were smaller in size than wild type counterparts in terms of body weight and tibial length. Akita mice exhibited elevated blood glucose and glycated haemoglobin. Total heart and individual ventricles were all smaller in Akita mice. None of the aforementioned parameters was impacted by MitoGamide treatment. Echocardiographic analysis confirmed that cardiac dimensions were smaller in Akita hearts. Diastolic dysfunction was evident in Akita mice, and notably, MitoGamide treatment preferentially improved several of these markers, including e'/a' ratio and E/e' ratio. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that MitoGamide, a novel mitochondria-targeted approach, offers cardioprotection in experimental diabetes and therefore may offer therapeutic potential for the treatment of cardiomyopathy in patients with diabetes.

The early life origin theory in the development of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.

Life expectancy has been examined from a variety of perspectives in recent history. Epidemiology is one perspective which examines causes of morbidity and mortality at the population level. Over the past few 100 years there have been dramatic shifts in the major causes of death and expected life length. This change has suffered from inconsistency across time and space with vast inequalities observed between population groups. In current focus is the challenge of rising non-communicable diseases (NCD), such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. In the search to discover methods to combat the rising incidence of these diseases, a number of new theories on the development of morbidity have arisen. A pertinent example is the hypothesis published by David Barker in 1995 which postulates the prenatal and early developmental origin of adult onset disease, and highlights the importance of the maternal environment. This theory has been subject to criticism however it has gradually gained acceptance. In addition, the relatively new field of epigenetics is contributing evidence in support of the theory. This review aims to explore the implication and limitations of the developmental origin hypothesis, via an historical perspective, in order to enhance understanding of the increasing incidence of NCDs, and facilitate an improvement in planning public health policy.

Temporal landscape of mitochondrial proteostasis governed by the UPRmt.

Breakdown of mitochondrial proteostasis activates quality control pathways including the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) and PINK1/Parkin mitophagy. However, beyond the up-regulation of chaperones and proteases, we have a limited understanding of how the UPRmt remodels and restores damaged mitochondrial proteomes. Here, we have developed a functional proteomics framework, termed MitoPQ (Mitochondrial Proteostasis Quantification), to dissect the UPRmt's role in maintaining proteostasis during stress. We find essential roles for the UPRmt in both protecting and repairing proteostasis, with oxidative phosphorylation metabolism being a central target of the UPRmt. Transcriptome analyses together with MitoPQ reveal that UPRmt transcription factors drive independent signaling arms that act in concert to maintain proteostasis. Unidirectional interplay between the UPRmt and PINK1/Parkin mitophagy was found to promote oxidative phosphorylation recovery when the UPRmt failed. Collectively, this study defines the network of proteostasis mediated by the UPRmt and highlights the value of functional proteomics in decoding stressed proteomes.

Targeting Methylglyoxal in Diabetic Kidney Disease Using the Mitochondria-Targeted Compound MitoGamide.

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) remains the number one cause of end-stage renal disease in the western world. In experimental diabetes, mitochondrial dysfunction in the kidney precedes the development of DKD. Reactive 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds, such as methylglyoxal, are generated from sugars both endogenously during diabetes and exogenously during food processing. Methylglyoxal is thought to impair the mitochondrial function and may contribute to the pathogenesis of DKD. Here, we sought to target methylglyoxal within the mitochondria using MitoGamide, a mitochondria-targeted dicarbonyl scavenger, in an experimental model of diabetes. Male 6-week-old heterozygous Akita mice (C57BL/6-Ins2-Akita/J) or wildtype littermates were randomized to receive MitoGamide (10 mg/kg/day) or a vehicle by oral gavage for 16 weeks. MitoGamide did not alter the blood glucose control or body composition. Akita mice exhibited hallmarks of DKD including albuminuria, hyperfiltration, glomerulosclerosis, and renal fibrosis, however, after 16 weeks of treatment, MitoGamide did not substantially improve the renal phenotype. Complex-I-linked mitochondrial respiration was increased in the kidney of Akita mice which was unaffected by MitoGamide. Exploratory studies using transcriptomics identified that MitoGamide induced changes to olfactory signaling, immune system, respiratory electron transport, and post-translational protein modification pathways. These findings indicate that targeting methylglyoxal within the mitochondria using MitoGamide is not a valid therapeutic approach for DKD and that other mitochondrial targets or processes upstream should be the focus of therapy.

Processed foods drive intestinal barrier permeability and microvascular diseases.

Intake of processed foods has increased markedly over the past decades, coinciding with increased microvascular diseases such as chronic kidney disease (CKD) and diabetes. Here, we show in rodent models that long-term consumption of a processed diet drives intestinal barrier permeability and an increased risk of CKD. Inhibition of the advanced glycation pathway, which generates Maillard reaction products within foods upon thermal processing, reversed kidney injury. Consequently, a processed diet leads to innate immune complement activation and local kidney inflammation and injury via the potent proinflammatory effector molecule complement 5a (C5a). In a mouse model of diabetes, a high resistant starch fiber diet maintained gut barrier integrity and decreased severity of kidney injury via suppression of complement. These results demonstrate mechanisms by which processed foods cause inflammation that leads to chronic disease.

Targeting Mitochondria and Reactive Oxygen Species-Driven Pathogenesis in Diabetic Nephropathy.

Diabetic kidney disease is one of the major microvascular complications of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Approximately 30% of patients with diabetes experience renal complications. Current clinical therapies can only mitigate the symptoms and delay the progression to end-stage renal disease, but not prevent or reverse it. Oxidative stress is an important player in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. The activity of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/NS), which are by-products of the diabetic milieu, has been found to correlate with pathological changes observed in the diabetic kidney. However, many clinical studies have failed to establish that antioxidant therapy is renoprotective. The discovery that increased ROS/NS activity is linked to mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum stress, inflammation, cellular senescence, and cell death calls for a refined approach to antioxidant therapy. It is becoming clear that mitochondria play a key role in the generation of ROS/NS and their consequences on the cellular pathways involved in apoptotic cell death in the diabetic kidney. Oxidative stress has also been associated with necrosis via induction of mitochondrial permeability transition. This review highlights the importance of mitochondria in regulating redox balance, modulating cellular responses to oxidative stress, and influencing cell death pathways in diabetic kidney disease. ROS/NS-mediated cellular dysfunction corresponds with progressive disease in the diabetic kidney, and consequently represents an important clinical target. Based on this consideration, this review also examines current therapeutic interventions to prevent ROS/NS-derived injury in the diabetic kidney. These interventions, mainly aimed at reducing or preventing mitochondrial-generated oxidative stress, improving mitochondrial antioxidant defense, and maintaining mitochondrial integrity, may deliver alternative approaches to halt or prevent diabetic kidney disease.