Effects of sublethal methylmercury and food stress on songbird energetic performance: metabolic rates, molt and feather quality.

Organisms regularly adjust their physiology and energy balance in response to predictable seasonal environmental changes. Stressors and contaminants have the potential to disrupt these critical seasonal transitions. No studies have investigated how simultaneous exposure to the ubiquitous toxin methylmercury (MeHg) and food stress affects birds' physiological performance across seasons. We quantified several aspects of energetic performance in song sparrows, Melospiza melodia, exposed or not to unpredictable food stress and MeHg in a 2×2 experimental design, over 3 months during the breeding season, followed by 3 months post-exposure. Birds exposed to food stress had reduced basal metabolic rate and non-significant higher factorial metabolic scope during the exposure period, and had a greater increase in lean mass throughout most of the experimental period. Birds exposed to MeHg had increased molt duration, and increased mass:length ratio of some of their primary feathers. Birds exposed to the combined food stress and MeHg treatment often had responses similar to the stress-only or MeHg-only exposure groups, suggesting these treatments affected physiological performance through different mechanisms and resulted in compensatory or independent effects. Because the MeHg and stress variables were selected in candidate models with a ΔAICc lower than 2 but the 95% confidence interval of these variables overlapped zero, we found weak support for MeHg effects on all measures except basal metabolic rate, and for food stress effects on maximum metabolic rate, factorial metabolic scope and feather mass:length ratio. This suggests that MeHg and food stress effects on these measures are statistically identified but not simple and/or were too weak to be detected via linear regression. Overall, combined exposure to ecologically relevant MeHg and unpredictable food stress during the breeding season does not appear to induce extra energetic costs for songbirds in the post-exposure period. However, MeHg effects on molt duration could carry over across multiple annual cycle stages.

Effects of ghrelin on food caching behaviour and body composition in black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus).

Several metabolic hormones signal an organism's energy balance to the brain and modulate feeding behaviours accordingly. These metabolic signals may also regulate other behaviour related to energy balance, such as food caching or hoarding. Ghrelin is one such hormone, but it appears to exert different effects on appetite and fat levels in birds and mammals. Ghrelin treatment inhibits food intake and decreases fat stores in some bird species, but these effects may differ between acylated and unacylated (des-acyl) forms of ghrelin. The effect of ghrelin on food caching in birds has been examined in only one study, that found both leptin and unacylated ghrelin reduced food caching and mass gain in coal tits (Periparus ater). We expanded on this to test how both forms of ghrelin affect food caching and body composition in black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus). We injected each bird with acylated ghrelin, unacylated ghrelin, and a saline control and then measured food caching every 20 min for two hours post-injection. We also measured body mass fat levels the day before, and after treatment using quantitative magnetic resonance (QMR). Contrary to prior work, we found no effects of either form of ghrelin on food caching, or body or fat mass. Future work is required to determine if the difference between our results and those of the prior study stems from species differences in response to ghrelin and/or in the motivation to cache food, or ghrelin effects being modulated by energy reserves.

Neuronal activation in the geomagnetic responsive region Cluster N covaries with nocturnal migratory restlessness in white-throated sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis).

Cluster N is a region of the visual forebrain of nocturnally migrating songbirds that supports the geomagnetic compass of nocturnal migrants. Cluster N expresses immediate-early genes (ZENK), indicating neuronal activation. This neuronal activity has only been recorded at night during the migratory season. Night-to-night variation in Cluster N activity in relation to migratory behaviour has not been previously examined. We tested whether Cluster N is activated only when birds are motivated to migrate and presumably engage their magnetic compass. We measured immediate-early gene activation in Cluster N of white-throated sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis) in three conditions: daytime, nighttime migratory restless and nighttime resting. Birds in the nighttime migratory restlessness group had significantly greater numbers of ZENK-labelled cells in Cluster N compared to both the daytime and the nighttime resting groups. Additionally, the degree of migratory restlessness was positively correlated with the number of ZENK-labelled cells in the nighttime migratory restless group. Our study adds to the number of species observed to have neural activation in Cluster N and demonstrates for the first time that immediate early gene activation in Cluster N is correlated with the amount of active migratory behaviour displayed across sampled individuals. We conclude that Cluster N is facultatively regulated by the motivation to migrate, together with nocturnal activity, rather than obligatorily active during the migration season.

Effects of methylmercury and food stress on migratory activity in song sparrows, Melospiza melodia.

Avian migration is a challenging life stage susceptible to the adverse effects of stressors, including contaminants like methylmercury (MeHg). Although birds often experience stressors and contaminants concurrently in the wild, no study to date has investigated how simultaneous exposure to MeHg and food stress affects migratory behavior. Our objectives were to determine if MeHg or food stress exposure during summer, alone or combined, has carry-over effects on autumn migratory activity, and if hormone levels (corticosterone, thyroxine) and body condition were related to these effects. We tested how exposure to dietary MeHg and/or food stress (unpredictable temporary food removal) affected migratory behavior in captive song sparrows, Melospiza melodia. Nocturnal activity was influenced by a 3-way interaction between MeHg × stress × nights of the study, indicating that activity changed over time in different ways depending on prior treatments. Thyroxine was not affected by treatment or sampling date. During the migratory season, fecal corticosterone metabolite concentrations increased in birds co-exposed to MeHg and food stress compared to controls, suggesting an additive carry-over effect. As well, during the period of behavioral recording, body condition increased with time in unstressed birds, but not in stressed birds. Fecal corticosterone metabolite concentrations were positively correlated to duration of nocturnal activity, but thyroxine levels and body condition were not. The differences in nocturnal activity between groups suggest that food stress and MeHg exposure on breeding grounds could have direct and indirect carry-over effects that have the potential to affect the fall migration journey.

Experimental ghrelin administration affects migratory behaviour in a songbird.

Twice a year, billions of birds take on drastic physiological and behavioural changes to migrate between breeding and wintering areas. On migration, most passerine birds regularly stop over along the way to rest and refuel. Endogenous energy stores are not only the indispensable fuel to complete long distance flights, but are also important peripheral signals that once integrated in the brain modulate crucial behavioural decisions, such as the decision to resume migration after a stopover. A network of hormones signals metabolic fuel availability to the brain in vertebrates, including the recently discovered gut-hormone ghrelin. Here, we show that ghrelin takes part in the control of migratory behaviour during spring migration in a wild migratory passerine. We manipulated blood concentrations of ghrelin of 53 yellow-rumped warblers (Setophaga coronata coronata) caught during stopover and automatically radio-tracked their migratory behaviour following release. We found that injections of acylated and unacylated ghrelin rapidly induced movements away from the release site, indicating that the ghrelin system acts centrally to mediate stopover departure decisions. The effects of the hormone manipulation declined within 8 h following release, and did not affect the overall rate of migration. These results provide experimental evidence for a pivotal role of ghrelin in the modulation of behavioural decisions during migration. In addition, this study offers insights into the regulatory functions of metabolic hormones in the dialogue between gut and brain in birds.

European starlings (sturnus vulgaris) discriminate rhythms by rate, not temporal patterns.

Humans can perceive a regular psychological pulse in music known as the beat. The evolutionary origins and neural mechanisms underlying this ability are hypothetically linked to imitative vocal learning, a rare trait found only in some species of mammals and birds. Beat perception has been demonstrated in vocal learning parrots but not in songbirds. We trained European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) on two sound discriminations to investigate their perception of the beat and temporal structure in rhythmic patterns. First, we trained birds on a two-choice discrimination between rhythmic patterns of tones that contain or lack a regular beat. Despite receiving extensive feedback, the starlings were unable to distinguish the first two patterns. Next, we probed the temporal cues that starlings use for discriminating rhythms in general. We trained birds to discriminate a baseline set of isochronous and triplet tone sequences. On occasional probe trials, we presented transformations of the baseline patterns. The starlings' responses to the probes suggest they relied on absolute temporal features to sort the sounds into "fast" and "slow" and otherwise ignored patterns that were present. Our results support that starlings attend to local features in rhythms and are less sensitive to the global temporal organization.

Black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus) use temperature as a cue for reproductive timing.

Reliable environmental cues, such as photoperiod, act as initial predictive cues that allow birds to time reproduction to match peak food abundance for their offspring. More variable local cues, like temperature, may, however, provide more precise information about the timing of food abundance. Non-migratory birds, in particular, should be sensitive to temperature cues and use them to modulate their reproductive timing. We conducted two experiments to examine the effect of temperature on reproductive condition (gonad size and circulating androgen levels) in non-migratory black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus). First, we exposed groups of birds in outdoor aviaries to three different over-winter temperature treatments and assessed gonad size in the spring. Second, we manipulated temperature in environmental chambers under photostimulatory and non-photostimulatory photoperiodic conditions and assessed gonad size and circulating testosterone levels. Temperature had no independent effect on gonad size or testosterone levels, but when photostimulated birds exposed to warmer conditions became reproductively ready earlier than birds experiencing cooler conditions. We conclude that temperature acts as a supplementary cue that modulates the photoperiod-driven timing of reproduction.

The avian hippocampus and the hypothetical maps used by navigating migratory birds (with some reflection on compasses and migratory restlessness).

The homology between the avian hippocampal formation (HF) and mammalian hippocampus nurtures the expectation that HF plays a fundamental role in navigation by migratory birds. Indeed, HF of migratory birds displays anatomical properties that differ from non-migratory species. Using a hypothetical framework of multiple maps of differing spatial resolution and range, homing pigeon data suggest that HF is important for navigating by landscape features near familiar breeding, over-wintering, and stop-over sites. By contrast, HF would be unimportant for an olfactory navigational map, which could be operational over unfamiliar space farther away from a goal location, nor is there any evidence for HF involvement in the sun or geomagnetic compass. The most intriguing question that remains open is what role HF may play in navigation when a migrant is thousands kms away from a familiar area, where homing pigeon data are uninformative and a geomagnetic map may be operational. Beyond navigation, successful migration depends on seasonal timing and often becoming nocturnally active. There is little evidence that HF plays a role in the timing of circannual and circadian cycles. Rather, circadian pacemakers including the pineal gland may control circadian timing of nocturnal restlessness and photoperiodic seasonal pacemakers likely control circannual expression.

Male song sparrows have elevated testosterone in response to neighbors versus strangers.

Upon hearing a conspecific signal, animals must assess their relationship with the signaller and respond appropriately. Territorial animals usually respond more aggressively to strangers than neighbors in a phenomenon known as the "dear enemy effect". This phenomenon likely evolved because strangers represent a threat to an animal's territory tenure and parentage, whereas neighbors only represent a threat to an animal's parentage because they already possess a territory (providing territory boundaries are established and stable). Although the dear enemy effect has been widely documented using behavioral response variables, little research has been conducted on the physiological responses of animals to neighbors versus strangers. We sought to investigate whether the dear enemy effect is observed physiologically by exposing territorial male song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) to playback simulating a neighbor or a stranger, and then collecting blood samples to measure plasma testosterone levels. We predicted that song sparrows would exhibit increased testosterone levels after exposure to stranger playback compared to neighbor playback, due to the role testosterone plays in regulating aggression. Contrary to our prediction, we found that song sparrows had higher testosterone levels after exposure to neighbor playback compared to stranger playback. We discuss several explanations for our result, notably that corticosterone may regulate the dear enemy effect in male song sparrows and this may inhibit plasma testosterone. Future studies will benefit from examining corticosterone in addition to testosterone, to better understand the hormonal underpinnings of the dear enemy effect.

Seasonal change in the avian hippocampus.

The hippocampus plays an important role in cognitive processes, including memory and spatial orientation, in birds. The hippocampus undergoes seasonal change in food-storing birds and brood parasites, there are changes in the hippocampus during breeding, and further changes occur in some species in association with migration. In food-storing birds, seasonal change in the hippocampus occurs in fall and winter when the cognitively demanding behaviour of caching and retrieving food occurs. The timing of annual change in the hippocampus of food-storing birds is quite variable, however, and appears not to be under photoperiod control. A variety of factors, including cognitive performance, exercise, and stress may all influence seasonal change in the avian hippocampus. The causal processes underlying seasonal change in the avian hippocampus have not been extensively examined and the more fully described hormonal influences on the mammalian hippocampus may provide hypotheses for investigating the control of hippocampal seasonality in birds.

Testosterone, migration distance, and migratory timing in song sparrows Melospiza melodia.

In seasonally migratory animals, migration distance often varies substantially within populations such that individuals breeding at the same site may overwinter different distances from the breeding grounds. Shorter migration may allow earlier return to the breeding grounds, which may be particularly advantageous to males competing to acquire a breeding territory. However, little is known about potential mechanisms that may mediate migration distance. We investigated naturally-occurring variation in androgen levels at the time of arrival to the breeding site and its relationship to overwintering latitude in male and female song sparrows (Melospiza melodia). We used stable isotope analysis of hydrogen (δ(2)H) in winter-grown claw tissue to infer relative overwintering latitude (migration distance), combined with 14years of capture records from a long-term study population to infer the arrival timing of males versus females. Relative to females, males had higher circulating androgen levels, migrated shorter distances, and were more likely to be caught early in the breeding season. Males that migrate short distances may benefit from early arrival at the breeding grounds, allowing them to establish a breeding territory. Even after controlling for sex and date, androgen levels were highest in individuals that migrated shorter distances. Our findings indicate that androgens and migration distance are correlated traits within and between sexes that may reflect individual variation within an integrated phenotype in which testosterone has correlated effects on behavioral traits such as migration.

Developmental stress impairs performance on an association task in male and female songbirds, but impairs auditory learning in females only.

In songbirds, early-life environments critically shape song development. Many studies have demonstrated that developmental stress impairs song learning and the development of song-control regions of the brain in males. However, song has evolved through signaller-receiver networks and the effect stress has on the ability to receive auditory signals is equally important, especially for females who use song as an indicator of mate quality. Female song preferences have been the metric used to evaluate how developmental stress affects auditory learning, but preferences are shaped by many non-cognitive factors and preclude the evaluation of auditory learning abilities in males. To determine whether developmental stress specifically affects auditory learning in both sexes, we subjected juvenile European starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, to either an ad libitum or an unpredictable food supply treatment from 35 to 115 days of age. In adulthood, we assessed learning of both auditory and visual discrimination tasks. Females reared in the experimental group were slower than females in the control group to acquire a relative frequency auditory task, and slower than their male counterparts to acquire an absolute frequency auditory task. There was no difference in auditory performance between treatment groups for males. However, on the colour association task, birds from the experimental group committed more errors per trial than control birds. There was no correlation in performance across the cognitive tasks. Developmental stress did not affect all cognitive processes equally across the sexes. Our results suggest that the male auditory system may be more robust to developmental stress than that of females.

Transient and permanent effects of suboptimal incubation temperatures on growth, metabolic rate, immune function and adrenocortical responses in zebra finches.

In birds, incubation temperature can vary by several degrees Celsius among nests of a given species. Parents may alter incubation temperature to cope with environmental conditions and/or to manipulate embryonic development, and such changes in incubation behavior could have long-lasting effects on offspring phenotype. To investigate short- and long-term effects of suboptimal incubation temperatures on survival and physiological functions in zebra finches, eggs were incubated at 36.2, 37.4 or 38.4 °C for the entire incubation period. The post-hatch environment was identical among the treatment groups. We found that hatching success was lowest in the 38.4 °C group, while post-hatch survival was lowest in the 36.2 °C group. Incubation temperature had sex-specific effects on offspring phenotype: incubation temperatures affected body mass (Mb) but not physiological parameters of males and conversely, the physiological parameters but not Mb of females. Specifically, males from the 38.4 °C group weighed significantly less than males from the 36.2 °C group from the nestling period to adulthood, whereas females from different incubation temperature groups did not differ in Mb. In contrast, females incubated at 36.2 °C had transient but significantly elevated basal metabolic rate and adrenocortical responses during the nestling and fledgling periods, whereas no treatment effect was observed in males. Innate immunity was not affected by incubation temperature in either sex. These results suggest that a 1 °C deviation from what is considered an optimal incubation temperature can lower offspring performance and offspring survival.

Effects of early-developmental stress on growth rates, body composition and developmental plasticity of the HPG-axis.

In altricial songbirds, food restriction in early development has adverse effects on various physiological systems. When conditions improve birds can accelerate growth, but this compensatory strategy is associated with long-term adverse consequences. One system affected by altered growth rates is the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Here, we subjected European starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, to an unpredictable food manipulation from 35 to 115days of age. We assessed the effects of the treatment by measuring overall body mass and body composition during and following the treatment period (i.e., accelerated growth). In adulthood, we measured the long-term effects of the treatment on overall body mass, testis volume, and HPG axis function in both sexes by quantifying androgen levels before and after a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) challenge. During the treatment period, treatment birds had less body fat than controls. Following the treatment period, treatment birds weighed more than controls, but these gains were attributed to changes in lean mass. In adulthood, treatment males had lower baseline androgen levels, but there was no difference in peak androgen levels compared to controls. Treatment females did not differ from controls on any of the androgen measures. However, females that accelerated growth faster following the termination of the treatment had lower integrated androgen levels. When faced with limited developmental resources, birds may alter the developmental trajectory of physiological systems as a compensatory strategy. Such a strategy may have long-term consequences on endocrine regulation that could affect courtship and reproductive behaviors.

Site-specific regulation of adult neurogenesis by dietary fatty acid content, vitamin E and flight exercise in European starlings.

Exercise is known to have a strong effect on neuroproliferation in mammals ranging from rodents to humans. Recent studies have also shown that fatty acids and other dietary supplements can cause an upregulation of neurogenesis. It is not known, however, how exercise and diet interact in their effects on adult neurogenesis. We examined neuronal recruitment in multiple telencephalic sites in adult male European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) exposed to a factorial combination of flight exercise, dietary fatty acids and antioxidants. Experimental birds were flown in a wind tunnel following a training regime that mimicked the bird's natural flight behaviour. In addition to flight exercise, we manipulated the composition of dietary fatty acids and the level of enrichment with vitamin E, an antioxidant reported to enhance neuronal recruitment. We found that all three factors - flight exercise, fatty acid composition and vitamin E enrichment - regulate neuronal recruitment in a site-specific manner. We also found a robust interaction between flight training and vitamin E enrichment at multiple sites of neuronal recruitment. Specifically, flight training was found to enhance neuronal recruitment across the telencephalon, but only in birds fed a diet with a low level of vitamin E. Conversely, dietary enrichment with vitamin E upregulated neuronal recruitment, but only in birds not flown in the wind tunnel. These findings indicate conserved modulation of adult neurogenesis by exercise and diet across vertebrate taxa and indicate possible therapeutic interventions in disorders characterized by reduced adult neurogenesis.

Female cowbirds have more accurate spatial memory than males.

Brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) are obligate brood parasites. Only females search for host nests and they find host nests one or more days before placing eggs in them. Past work has shown that females have a larger hippocampus than males, but sex differences in spatial cognition have not been extensively investigated. We tested cowbirds for sex and seasonal differences in spatial memory on a foraging task with an ecologically relevant retention interval. Birds were trained to find one rewarded location among 25 after 24 h. Females made significantly fewer errors than males and took more direct paths to the rewarded location than males. Females and males showed similar search times, indicating there was no sex difference in motivation. This sex difference in spatial cognition is the reverse of that observed in some polygynous mammals and is consistent with the hypothesis that spatial cognition is adaptively specialized in this brood-parasitic species.

Developmental programming of the HPA and HPG axes by early-life stress in male and female song sparrows.

Variation in early environmental conditions can have long-term effects on physiology and behavior, a process referred to as developmental programming. In particular, exposure to early-life stressors can have long-term effects on regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes. Although these effects have been well documented in mammals, less is known about how early-life stress affects regulation of these endocrine systems in non-mammalian species. In the current study, we determined the long-term effects of early-life food restriction or corticosterone (CORT) treatment on the HPA axis of song sparrows (Melospiza melodia), including the responses to restraint stress, dexamethasone challenge, and ACTH challenge. In addition, we assessed long-term effects on the HPG axis by measuring sex steroid levels (testosterone in males and 17ß-estradiol in females) before and after a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) challenge. Subjects treated with CORT during development had larger increases in CORT in response to ACTH challenge than food-restricted or control subjects. Neither treatment affected the responses of CORT to restraint or dexamethasone. CORT-treated males also had higher initial testosterone levels, but neither treatment affected testosterone levels post-GnRH. Lastly, although GnRH challenge failed to increase circulating estradiol levels in females, females exposed to food restriction or CORT treatment had lower estradiol levels than control females. These results show that exposure to stress can developmentally program the endocrine system of songbirds and illustrate the importance of considering developmental conditions when determining the factors responsible for inter-individual variation in endocrine regulation.

Sex steroid-independent effects of photostimulation on the song-control system of white-throated sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis).

Brain nuclei within the song-control system of songbirds are seasonally plastic during adulthood. These nuclei are larger in birds exposed to long, spring-like days than short, winter-like days. There is overwhelming evidence that this effect is mediated by testosterone (T). However, castration studies have also demonstrated that photostimulation has gonad-independent effects on song-control system plasticity, but these studies rarely control for extra-gonadal sources of T. In this study, we used anti-androgen and anti-estrogen treatments in combination with castration to determine the sex steroid-independent effects of photostimulation on HVC size and doublecortin immunoreactivity in white-throated sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis). Birds were kept on short days or photostimulated for 1 month. Photostimulated birds were intact, castrated and treated with anti-androgens and anti-estrogens, or castrated and treated with T. HVC volumes of photostimulated birds were significantly larger than short-day birds. HVC volume of castrated birds given anti-androgens/-estrogens was significantly larger than short-day birds, indicating a sex steroid-independent effect of photostimulation. Similar results were observed for RA. The number of migrating neurons (immunoreactive for doublecortin) in HVC did not differ between treatment groups. Our data support the view that photostimulation alone can drive song-control system nuclei growth, and that concurrent exposure to T potentiates this growth. Moreover, these effects do not appear dependent on modulation of neuron migration.

HPA axis regulation, survival, and reproduction in free-living sparrows: Functional relationships or developmental correlations?

A growing body of theoretical and empirical work has addressed the relationship between hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function and fitness. For example, the corticosterone (CORT)-fitness and CORT-condition hypotheses predict that baseline and/or stress-induced levels of glucocorticoids should relate to fitness, and recent empirical studies have reported relationships between HPA function and fitness-related sexually selected traits. Here we introduce a framework for evaluating whether such relationships reflect functional relationships or developmental correlations. We then address this framework using data from a free-living population of song sparrows (Melospiza melodia). In two independent studies we have found that song complexity (a sexually selected trait) is correlated with stress reactivity: males with more complex vocal repertoires show reduced CORT response to standardized restraint stress. This pattern likely results from the early life environment concurrently affecting development of both song and the HPA axis. Suppression of CORT by dexamethasone was also correlated to measures of body condition and immune function, and females paired to males with higher stress-induced levels of CORT initiated egg-laying later. Finally, stress reactivity predicted overwinter survival in one year, although not in another. Thus, the relationship between HPA axis function and fitness likely varies temporally and by context. Some fitness-related traits may be functionally related to HPA regulation, but many others may be related through developmental correlation.

Methylmercury effects on avian brains.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a concerning contaminant due to its ubiquity and harmful effects on organisms. Although birds are important models in the neurobiology of vocal learning and adult neuroplasticity, the neurotoxic effects of MeHg are less understood in birds than mammals. We surveyed the literature on MeHg effects on biochemical changes in the avian brain. Publication rates of papers related to neurology and/or birds and/or MeHg increased with time and can be linked with historical events, regulations, and increased understanding of MeHg cycling in the environment. However, publications on MeHg effects on the avian brain remain relatively low across time. The neural effects measured to evaluate MeHg neurotoxicity in birds changed with time and researcher interest. The measures most consistently affected by MeHg exposure in birds were markers of oxidative stress. NMDA, acetylcholinesterase, and Purkinje cells also seem sensitive to some extent. MeHg exposure has the potential to affect most neurotransmitter systems but more studies are needed for validation in birds. We also review the main mechanisms of MeHg-induced neurotoxicity in mammals and compare it to what is known in birds. The literature on MeHg effects on the avian brain is limited, preventing full construction of an adverse outcome pathway. We identify research gaps for taxonomic groups such as songbirds, and age- and life-stage groups such as immature fledgling stage and adult non-reproductive life stage. In addition, results are often inconsistent between experimental and field studies. We conclude that future neurotoxicological studies of MeHg impacts on birds need to better connect the numerous aspects of exposure from molecular physiological effects to behavioural outcomes that would be ecologically or biologically relevant for birds, especially under challenging conditions.