Sorafenib synergizes with metformin in NSCLC through AMPK pathway activation.

The multikinase inhibitor sorafenib is under clinical investigation for the treatment of many solid tumors, but in most cases, the molecular target responsible for the clinical effect is unknown. Furthermore, enhancing the effectiveness of sorafenib using combination strategies is a major clinical challenge. Here, we identify sorafenib as an activator of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), in a manner that involves either upstream LKB1 or CAMKK2. We further show in a phase II clinical trial in KRAS mutant advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with single agent sorafenib an improved disease control rate in patients using the antidiabetic drug metformin. Consistent with this, sorafenib and metformin act synergistically in inhibiting cellular proliferation in NSCLC in vitro and in vivo. A synergistic effect of both drugs is also seen on phosphorylation of the AMPKα activation site. Our results provide a rationale for the synergistic antiproliferative effects, given that AMPK inhibits downstream mTOR signaling. These data suggest that the combination of sorafenib with AMPK activators could have beneficial effects on tumor regression by AMPK pathway activation. The combination of metformin or other AMPK activators and sorafenib could be tested in prospective clinical trials.

Tumor flare after start of RAF inhibition in KRAS mutated NSCLC: a case report.

Here we describe a case of striking tumor flare after start of treatment with sorafenib and metformin as part of a phase II clinical trial. Previous reports have described a paradoxal activation of the MAPK pathway after treatment with a weak RAF inhibitor. This mechanism is based on inhibition of a negative feedback loop to upstream effectors of RAF and subsequently increased stimulation of the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK (MAPK) pathway. We suggest that sorafenib may contribute to tumor progression through this mechanism and clinicians should be aware of this phenomenon when treating NSCLC patients with sorafenib.

Comparison of clinical outcome after first-line platinum-based chemotherapy in different types of KRAS mutated advanced non-small-cell lung cancer.

OBJECTIVES: As suggested by in-vitro data, we hypothesize that subtypes of KRAS mutated non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) respond differently to chemotherapy regimens. METHODS: Patients with advanced NSCLC and known KRAS mutation, treated with first-line platinum-based chemotherapy, were retrieved from hospital databases. PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: to investigate overall response rate (ORR), progression free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) between different types of platinum-based chemotherapy per type of KRAS mutation. RESULTS: 464 patients from 17 hospitals, treated between 2000 and 2013, were included. The majority of patients had stage IV disease (93%), had a history of smoking (98%) and known with an adenocarcinoma (91%). Most common types of KRAS mutation were G12C (46%), G12V (20%) and G12D (10%). Platinum was combined with pemetrexed (n=334), taxanes (n=68) or gemcitabine (n=62). Patients treated with taxanes had a significant improved ORR (50%) compared to pemetrexed (21%) or gemcitabine (25%; p<0.01). Patients treated with bevacizumab in addition to taxanes (n=38) had the highest ORR (62%). The PFS was significantly improved in patients treated with taxanes compared to pemetrexed (HR=0.72, p=0.02), but not OS (HR=0.87, p=0.41). In patients with G12V, significantly improved ORR (p<0.01) was observed for taxanes, but not PFS or OS. Patients with G12C or G12D mutation had comparable ORR, PFS and OS in all treatment groups. CONCLUSION: KRAS mutated NSCLC patients treated with taxane-based chemotherapy had best ORR. Response to chemotherapy regimens was different in types of KRAS mutation. Especially patients with G12V had better response to taxane treatment.

Retrospective evaluation of thromboembolic events in patients with non-small cell lung cancer treated with platinum-based chemotherapy.

OBJECTIVES: Thromboembolic events (TE) are common in patients with cancer and are potentially life-threatening. In lung cancer, little is known about thrombosis during chemotherapy treatment. The aim of this study was to describe the incidence of TE in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), occurring during treatment with platinum-based chemotherapy. METHODS: We retrospectively selected patients with NSCLC treated with platinum-based chemotherapy at the VU University Medical Center Amsterdam between 2000 and 2012. Patients who underwent recent surgery were excluded. All TE were included that occurred from start of chemotherapy treatment until 30 days after last administration. RESULTS: Among 784 included patients, 63 (8.0%) patients had 69 TE during treatment. Forty-five venous TE (VTE) and 24 arterial TE (ATE). Six patients had multiple events within treatment period, 3 of which had simultaneous ATE and VTE. In total, 613 patients were treated with cisplatin, 119 patients received carboplatin and 52 patients received both in first- or second-line treatment. In 8% (55/665) of the patients exposed to cisplatin a TE had occurred vs. 5% (8/171) in patients exposed to carboplatin (p=0.42). The majority of TE occurred in the first 2 cycles (70%). History of TE was related to occurrence of TE during chemotherapy (p<0.01). Median PFS was similar in patients with and without TE (6.2 vs. 7.2 months, respectively; p=0.10). Median OS was significantly shorter in patients with TE (9.5 vs. 12.9 months, respectively; p=0.03). CONCLUSION: In our series, both ATE and VTE were a common finding during chemotherapy. TE was a poor prognostic factor. No difference in TE incidence was found between patients treated with cisplatin or carboplatin.

KRAS mutations in advanced nonsquamous non-small-cell lung cancer patients treated with first-line platinum-based chemotherapy have no predictive value.

BACKGROUND: Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) mutation is thought to be related with dismal outcome for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. The role of KRAS mutation as a predictor of response to chemotherapy for patients with metastatic NSCLC is poorly understood. METHODS: From a retrospective database of two university hospitals, all patients with advanced, nonsquamous NSCLC treated with first-line platinum-containing chemotherapy were selected. Mutation analysis for KRAS was performed and the relation with response to chemotherapy was assessed. Secondary endpoints were its relation with response to progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). RESULTS: A total of 161 patients, 94 men and 67 women, were included in this study. Median age was 60 years. The majority of patients (79%) had stage IV disease, of which 60 patients (37%) had a KRAS mutation. Patients with a KRAS mutation had a similar response to treatment as patients with KRAS wild-type (wt) (p = 0.77). Median PFS in KRAS-mutated patients was 4.0 months versus 4.5 months in KRAS wt patients (hazard ratio = 1.3; [95% confidence interval, 0.9-1.8]; p = 0.16). Median OS in patients with KRAS mutation was 7.0 months versus 9.3 months in patients with KRAS wt (hazard ratio = 1.2; [95% confidence interval, 0.9-1.7]; p = 0.25). Type of KRAS mutation had no influence on response or outcome. CONCLUSION: On the basis of our multicenter data presented here, we conclude that KRAS mutation is not predictive for worse response to chemotherapy, PFS, and OS in advanced NSCLC patients treated with platinum-based chemotherapy in first-line setting.

A phase II study of sorafenib in patients with platinum-pretreated, advanced (Stage IIIb or IV) non-small cell lung cancer with a KRAS mutation.

PURPOSE: Sorafenib inhibits the Ras/Raf pathway, which is overactive in cancer patients with a KRAS mutation. We hypothesized that patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with KRAS mutation will benefit from treatment with sorafenib. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: In this phase II study, patients with KRAS-mutated, stage IIIb or IV NSCLC that progressed after at least one platinum-containing regimen were treated with sorafenib. Treatment consisted of sorafenib 400 mg twice daily until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity. Pretreatment serum from each patient was obtained to predict outcome using a proteomic assay (VeriStrat). Primary endpoint was disease control rate (DCR) at 6 weeks. RESULTS: Fifty-nine patients were entered between May 2010 and February 2011. Fifty-seven patients started sorafenib. Mean age was 58.5 (SD = ±8.1) years, 16 male/41 female, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status (PS) 0/1/2 24/30/3. At 6 weeks, 5 partial response, 25 stable disease, and 27 progressive disease were observed; DCR was 52.6%. Median duration of treatment was 9 weeks. The median progression-free survival (PFS) was 2.3 months and median overall survival (OS) was 5.3 months. Patients with a prediction of good prognosis according to VeriStrat serum proteomics assay showed a significantly superior PFS [HR, 1.4; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.0-1.9] but not OS (HR, 1.3; 95% CI, 0.9-1.7). Sorafenib-related grade III/IV toxicity was reported in 10 patients (17.5%); all but one patient experienced grade III skin toxicity (14.0%) or grade III gastrointestinal toxicity (8.8%). CONCLUSION: Treatment with sorafenib has relevant clinical activity in patients with NSCLC harboring KRAS mutations. Further randomized study with this agent is warranted as single-agent or combination therapy.

Low molecular weight heparins in the treatment of lung cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Lung cancer is the major cause of cancer-related death. Venous thromboembolic events (VTEs) occur frequently in lung cancer and are a poor prognostic marker. For prevention and treatment of VTE, low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) are superior to vitamin K antagonists. There is some evidence that LMWH may improve survival in cancer patients. AREAS COVERED: The areas covered in this review are: lung cancer and VTEs; role of LMWH in treatment of VTEs; anticancer mechanism of heparins and clinical trials with LMWH in lung cancer. EXPERT OPINION: LMWH plays an important role in prevention and treatment of VTEs in lung cancer. Although there is evidence from both preclinical data and retrospective analysis of clinical trials that LMWH may prolong survival this is not confirmed by prospective randomized clinical trials. Several clinical trials on this subject in lung cancer are ongoing and have to be awaited.