Mechanical implications of pneumatic neck vertebrae in sauropod dinosaurs.

The pre-sacral vertebrae of most sauropod dinosaurs were surrounded by interconnected, air-filled diverticula, penetrating into the bones and creating an intricate internal cavity system within the vertebrae. Computational finite-element models of two sauropod cervical vertebrae now demonstrate the mechanical reason for vertebral pneumaticity. The analyses show that the structure of the cervical vertebrae leads to an even distribution of all occurring stress fields along the vertebrae, concentrated mainly on their external surface and the vertebral laminae. The regions between vertebral laminae and the interior part of the vertebral body including thin bony struts and septa are mostly unloaded and pneumatic structures are positioned in these regions of minimal stress. The morphology of sauropod cervical vertebrae was influenced by strongly segmented axial neck muscles, which require only small attachment areas on each vertebra, and pneumatic epithelia that are able to resorb bone that is not mechanically loaded. The interaction of these soft tissues with the bony tissue of the vertebrae produced lightweight, air-filled vertebrae in which most stresses were borne by the external cortical bone. Cervical pneumaticity was therefore an important prerequisite for neck enlargement in sauropods. Thus, we expect that vertebral pneumaticity in other parts of the body to have a similar role in enabling gigantism.

A walk in the maze: variation in Late Jurassic tridactyl dinosaur tracks from the Swiss Jura Mountains (NW Switzerland).

BACKGROUND: Minute to medium-sized (footprint length (FL) less than 30 cm) tridactyl dinosaur tracks are the most abundant in the Late Jurassic tracksites of Highway A16 (Reuchenette Formation, Kimmeridgian) in the Jura Mountains (NW Switzerland). During excavations, two morphotypes, one gracile and one robust, were identified in the field. Furthermore, two large-sized theropod ichnospecies (Megalosauripus transjuranicus and Jurabrontes curtedulensis) and an ornithopod-like morphotype (Morphotype II) have recently been described at these sites. METHODS: The quality of morphological preservation (preservation grade), the depth of the footprint, the shape variation, and the footprint proportions (FL/footprint width (FW) ratio and mesaxony) along the trackways have been analyzed using 3D models and false-color depth maps in order to determine the exact number of small to medium-sized morphotypes present in the tracksites. RESULTS: The study of footprints (n = 93) recovered during the excavations has made it possible to identify and characterize the two morphotypes distinguished in the field. The gracile morphotype is mainly characterized by a high FL/FW ratio, high mesaxony, low divarication angles and clear, sharp claw marks, and phalangeal pads (2-3-4). By contrast, the robust morphotype is characterized by a lower FL/FW ratio, weaker mesaxony, slightly higher divarication angles and clear, sharp claw marks (when preserved), whereas the phalangeal pads are not clearly preserved although they might be present. DISCUSSION: The analysis does not allow the two morphotypes to be associated within the same morphological continuum. Thus, they cannot be extramorphological variations of similar tracks produced by a single trackmaker. Comparison of the two morphotypes with the larger morphotypes described in the formation (M. transjuranicus, J. curtedulensis, and Morphotype II) and the spatio-temporal relationships of the trackways suggest that the smaller morphotypes cannot reliably be considered as small individuals of any of the larger morphotypes. The morphometric data of some specimens of the robust morphotype (even lower values for the length/width ratio and mesaxony) suggest that more than one ichnotaxon might be represented within the robust morphotype. The features of the gracile morphotype (cf. Kalohipus isp.) are typical of "grallatorid" ichnotaxa with low mesaxony whereas those of the robust morphotype (cf. Therangospodus isp. and Therangospodus? isp.) are reminiscent of Therangospodus pandemicus. This work sheds new light on combining an analysis of variations in footprint morphology through 3D models and false-color depth maps, with the study of possible ontogenetic variations and the identification of small-sized tridactyl ichnotaxa for the description of new dinosaur tracks.

Megalosauripus transjuranicus ichnosp. nov. A new Late Jurassic theropod ichnotaxon from NW Switzerland and implications for tridactyl dinosaur ichnology and ichnotaxomy.

A new ichnospecies of a large theropod dinosaur, Megalosauripus transjuranicus, is described from the Reuchenette Formation (Early-Late Kimmeridgian, Late Jurassic) of NW Switzerland. It is based on very well-preserved and morphologically-distinct tracks (impressions) and several trackways, including different preservational types from different tracksites and horizons. All trackways were excavated along federal Highway A16 near Courtedoux (Canton Jura) and systematically documented in the field including orthophotos and laserscans. The best-preserved tracks were recovered and additional tracks were casted. Megalosauripus transjuranicus is characterized by tridactyl tracks with clear claw and digital pad impressions, and notably an exceptionally large and round first phalangeal pad on the fourth digit (PIV1) that is connected to digit IV and forms the round heel area. Due to this combination of features, M. transjuranicus clearly is of theropod (and not ornithopod) origin. M. transjuranicus is compared to other Megalosauripus tracks and similar ichnotaxa and other unassigned tracks from the Early Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. It is clearly different from other ichnogenera assigned to large theropods such as Eubrontes-Grallator from the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic or Megalosauripus-Megalosauropus-Bueckeburgichnus and Therangospodus tracks from the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. A second tridactyl morphotype (called Morphotype II) is different from Megalosauripus transjuranicus in being subsymmetric, longer than wide (sometimes almost as wide as long), with blunt toe impressions and no evidence for discrete phalangeal pad and claw marks. Some Morphotype II tracks are found in trackways that are assigned to M. transjuranicus, to M.? transjuranicus or M. cf. transjuranicus indicating that some Morphotype II tracks are intra-trackway preservational variants of a morphological continuum of Megalosauripus transjuranicus. On the other hand, several up to 40 steps long trackways very consistently present Morphotype II features (notably blunt digits) and do not exhibit any of the features that are typical for Megalosauripus (notably phalangeal pads). Therefore, it is not very likely that these tracks are preservational variants of Megalosauripus transjuranicus or Megalosauripus isp. These trackways are interpreted to have been left by an ornithopod dinosaur. The high frequency of large theropod tracks in tidal-flat deposits of the Jura carbonate platform, associated on single ichnoassemblages with minute to medium-sized tridactyl and tiny to large sauropod tracks has important implications for the dinosaur community and for paleoenvironmental and paleogeographical reconstructions. As with most other known occurrences of Megalosauripus tracks, M. transjuranicus is found in coastal settings, which may reflect the preference of their theropod trackmakers for expanded carbonate flats where food was abundant.

Novel reconstruction of the orientation of the pectoral girdle in sauropods.

The orientation of the scapulocoracoid in sauropod dinosaurs is reconstructed based on comparative anatomical investigations of pectoral girdles of extant amniotes. In the reconstruction proposed here, the scapula of sauropods stands at an angle of at least 55 degrees to the horizontal plane in mechanical coherence with the sternal apparatus including the coracoids. The coracoids are oriented cranioventrally to the rib cage and the glenoid is directed mediolaterally, which allows the humerus to swing in a sagittal plane. The inclination of the scapula to the horizontal plane is reconstructed for Diplodocus (60-65 degrees), Camarasaurus (60-65 degrees), and Opisthocoelicaudia (55-65 degrees). The inclination of the scapulocoracoid has consequences for the overall body posture in Camarasaurus and Opisthocoelicaudia, where the dorsal contour would have ventrally declined toward the sacrum. Scapulocoracoid mobility depends on the arrangement of clavicles, the reconstruction of a coracosternal joint, and the reconstructed musculature of the shoulder girdle. In a crocodylian model of the shoulder musculature, m. serratus profundus and superficialis form a muscular sling, which suspends the trunk from the shoulder girdle and would allow a certain mobility of the scapulocoracoid. An avian model of the shoulder musculature would also mean suspension by means of the m. serratus complex, but indicates a closer connection of the scapula to the dorsal ribs, which would lead to more restricted movements of the scapulocoracoid in sauropods.