How does brief guided mindfulness meditation enhance empathic concern in novice meditators?: A pilot test of the suggestion hypothesis vs. the mindfulness hypothesis.

Despite the widespread popularity of mindfulness meditation for its various benefits, the mechanism underlying the meditation process has rarely been explored. Here, we present two preliminary studies designed to test alternative hypotheses: whether the effect of brief guided mindfulness meditation on empathic concern arises from verbal suggestion (suggestion hypothesis) or as a byproduct of an induced mindfulness state (mindfulness hypothesis). Study 1 was a pilot randomized control trial of sitting (breath-and-body) meditation vs. compassion meditation that provided preliminary support for the mindfulness hypothesis. Study 2 was set up to rule out the possibility that the meditation effects observed in Study 1 were the effects of repeated measures. An inactive control group of participants underwent the repeated measures of empathic concern with no meditation in between. The pre-post comparison demonstrated no significant changes in the measures. Thus, the results of two studies supported the mindfulness hypothesis. Limitations of the present study and future research directions are discussed.

Intervention for children with developmental coordination disorder: How robust is our recent evidence?

BACKGROUND: The evaluation of methods of intervention for children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is an ongoing process. Systematic and meta-analytical reviews play an important role in this process. Before 2015, only four reviews of this type were published on this topic. By 2019, the number had tripled, raising the question of whether the increase in quantity is accompanied by a similar increase in quality. The aim of this meta-review was to evaluate eight new review studies published during this time period with particular focus on the consistency of the inclusion criteria, the coverage of primary studies and the quality of evidence on which the conclusions were based. METHOD: Methodological quality was evaluated using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews, Second Edition (AMSTAR 2). RESULTS: The eight reviews differed in the inclusion criteria employed, the sources of primary evidence cited and in the quality of evidence provided. Using AMSTAR 2 terminology, the overall methodology of the reviews was judged to be acceptably high for only one. All others contained serious flaws. The conclusions drawn were not consistent. CONCLUSIONS: In spite of the increase in the number of reviews on intervention for children with DCD, quality remains an issue. Persistent methodological problems mean that consumers still cannot be confident in any of the claims made for intervention effects.

Task-oriented interventions for children with developmental co-ordination disorder.

BACKGROUND: Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) is a common childhood disorder, which can persist into adolescence and adulthood. Children with DCD have difficulties in performing the essential motor tasks required for self-care, academic, social and recreational activities. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effectiveness of task-oriented interventions on movement performance, psychosocial functions, activity, and participation for children with DCD and to examine differential intervention effects as a factor of age, sex, severity of DCD, intervention intensity, and type of intervention. SEARCH METHODS: In March 2017, we searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase, 13 other databases, and five trials registers. We also searched reference lists, and contacted members of the mailing list of the International Conference on DCD to identify additional studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included all randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs that compared the task-oriented intervention with either an inactive control intervention or an active control intervention in children and adolescents aged four to 18 years with a diagnosis of DCD.Types of outcome measures included changes in motor function, as assessed by standardised performance outcome tests and questionnaires; adverse events; and measures of participation. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: All review authors participated in study selection, data extraction, and assessments of risk of bias and quality, and two review authors independently performed all tasks. Specifically, two review authors independently screened titles and abstracts to eliminate irrelevant studies, extracted data from the included studies, assessed risk of bias, and rated the quality of the evidence using the GRADE approach. In cases of ambiguity or information missing from the paper, one review author contacted trial authors. MAIN RESULTS: This review included 15 studies (eight RCTs and seven quasi-RCTs). Study characteristicsThe trials included 649 participants of both sexes, ranging in age from five to 12 years.The participants were from Australia, Canada, China, Sweden, Taiwan, and the UK.Trials were conducted in hospital settings; at a university-based clinic, laboratory, or centre; in community centres; at home or school, or both at home and school.The durations of task-oriented interventions were mostly short term (less than six months), with the total number of sessions ranging from five to 50. The length of each session ranged from 30 to 90 minutes, and the frequencies ranged from once to seven times per week.We judged the risk of bias as moderate to high across the studies. Some elements were impossible to achieve (such as blinding of administering personnel or participants). KEY RESULTS: primary outcomesA meta-analysis of two RCTs and four quasi-RCTs found in favour of task-oriented interventions for improved motor performance compared to no intervention (mean difference (MD) -3.63, 95% confidence interval (CI) -5.88 to -1.39; P = 0.002; I2 = 43%; 6 trials, 169 children; very low-quality evidence).A meta-analysis of two RCTs found no effect of task-oriented interventions for improved motor performance compared to no intervention (MD -2.34, 95% CI -7.50 to 2.83; P = 0.38; I2 = 42%; 2 trials, 51 children; low-quality evidence).Two studies reported no adverse effects or events. Through personal correspondence, the authors of nine studies indicated that no injuries had occurred. KEY RESULTS: secondary outcomesDue to the limited number of studies with complete and consistent data, we were unable to perform any meta-analyses on our secondary measures or any subgroup analysis on age, sex, severity of DCD, and intervention intensity. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: We have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect. The conclusions drawn from previous reviews, which unanimously reported beneficial effects of intervention, are inconsistent with our conclusions. This review highlights the need for carefully designed and executed RCTs to investigate the effect of interventions for children with DCD.

Maternal health in pregnancy and associations with adverse birth outcomes: Evidence from Growing Up in New Zealand.

OBJECTIVE: To examine prospectively multiple indicators of pregnancy health and associations with adverse birth outcomes within a large, diverse sample of contemporary women. DESIGN: A cohort of pregnant women who gave birth during 2009-10. POPULATION: We enrolled a sample of 6822 pregnant New Zealand (NZ) women: 11% of all births in NZ during the recruitment period. METHODS: We analysed a number of maternal health indicators and behaviours during pregnancy in relation to birth outcomes using multivariable logistic regression. Associations were described using adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Three birth outcomes, low birth weight (LBW), pre-term birth (PTB) and delivery type, were measured via linkage with maternity hospital perinatal databases. Small for gestational age (SGA) was then defined as below the 10th percentile by week of gestation. RESULTS: Modelling of birth outcomes after adjusting for confounders indicated patterns of increased risk of LBW and PTB for women who smoke, have elevated pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), or with insufficient pregnancy weight gain. SGA was associated with maternal smoking, alcohol use, insufficient weight gain and nausea and vomiting during pregnancy. Risk of caesarean section was associated with having a diagnosed illness before pregnancy, elevated BMI, greater pregnancy weight gain and less pregnancy exercise. Number of risk factor variables were then used to model birth outcomes. Women with multiple risk factors were at increased risk compared with those who had no risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Women with multiple health risks are at particular risk of adverse birth outcomes.

One-week temporal stability of hyperactivity in preschoolers with ADHD during psychometric assessment.

AIM: To examine the usefulness of temporal measures of motor activity during psychometric assessment on two different assessment days, 1 week apart with a scope to help the early identification of hyperactivity. METHODS: Actigraph measures at the ankle and the waist were compared on the first and the second days of psychometric assessment in a total of 169 children (93 children in ADHD group; 76 children in Non-ADHD group) aged 3 years and 4 years. RESULTS: There was a significant interaction effect between group and time on the activity level at the waist. Although the activity level of the waist in the children with ADHD did not significantly differ between Day 1 and Day 2, the activity level of the children without ADHD declined significantly from Day 1 to 2. A total of 70% of children were correctly classified into ADHD or Non-ADHD groups based only on Day 2 waist activity data. CONCLUSION: The temporal consistency of hyperactivity in young children with ADHD during psychometric assessment is confirmed, indicating that objective measures of motor activity at the waist over different days of psychometric assessment can provide additional information for the stability of hyperactivity.

A Pilot Exploratory Study to Form Subgroups Using Cluster Analysis of Family Needs Survey Scores for Providing Tailored Support to Parents Caring for a Population-Based Sample of 5-Year-Old Children with Developmental Concerns.

In a population-based developmental screening program, healthcare providers face a practical problem with respect to the formation of groups to efficiently address the needs of the parents whose children are screened positive. This small-scale pilot study explored the usefulness of cluster analysis to form type-specific support groups based on the Family Needs Survey (FNS) scores. All parents (N = 68), who accompanied their 5-year-old children to appointments for formal assessment and diagnostic interviews in the second phase of screening, completed the FNS as part of a developmental questionnaire package. The FNS scores of a full dataset (N = 55) without missing values were subjected to hierarchical and K-means cluster analyses. As the final solution, hierarchical clustering with a three-cluster solution was selected over K-means clustering because the hierarchical clustering solution produced three clusters that were similar in size and meaningful in each profile pattern: Cluster 1-high need for information and professional support (N = 20); Cluster 2-moderate need for information support (N = 16); Cluster 3-high need for information and moderate need for other support (N = 19). The range of cluster sizes was appropriate for managing and providing tailored services and support for each group. Thus, this pilot study demonstrated the utility of cluster analysis to classify parents into support groups, according to their needs.

Physical Literacy as A Framework of Assessment and Intervention for Children and Youth with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Narrative Critical Review of Conventional Practice and Proposal for Future Directions.

A framework of literacy may have roles to play in the assessment and treatment of children and youth with developmental disorders. This review aims to evaluate the conventional practice of assessment and treatment for children and youth with a developmental disorder in the physical domain, called developmental coordination disorder (DCD), and explore how the framework of physical literacy could contribute to the advancement of the current practice. This study adopts a method of narrative critical review based on a non-systematic search for its broad coverage to provide insights into the trend and future alternative directions. Over recent decades, children and youth with DCD have been typically assessed with standardized norm-referenced tests, before and after task-oriented intervention, for aiding diagnosis and evaluating the treatment effect. However, a recent high-quality systematic review showed limited evidence for the treatment effect assessed by the tests. Here, a framework of physical literacy is proposed to be used as an alternative to the conventional practice by recalibrating treatment goals and modifying the assessment and intervention approaches; criterion-referenced real-life authentic assessment and activities are encouraged with an emphasis on the enjoyment of movement and value of physical activity towards the attainment of physically active and healthy lifestyle goals from a lifespan perspective. The application of the physical literacy framework to the assessment and treatment of DCD needs to be further examined conceptually and empirically, while exploring a potential contribution of the literacy framework to transform the conventional assessment and treatment of children and youth with other developmental disorders.

Experiences of activity limitations and participation restrictions in individuals with developmental coordination disorder/dyspraxia, their families, and service providers: a qualitative systematic review protocol.

OBJECTIVE: This review aims to synthesize existing qualitative studies on the experiences of activity limitations and participation restrictions in individuals with developmental coordination disorder/dyspraxia, their families, and service providers. INTRODUCTION: Developmental coordination disorder features a significant delay in lifespan motor development, which limits daily activities and restricts participation at home, school, workplace, recreation, and in the community. To date, these activity limitations and participation restrictions have been sporadically characterized in quantitative and qualitative studies. However, the nature of the subjective experiences of activity limitations and participation restrictions has not been systematically reviewed or qualitatively synthesized from the first- and third-person perspectives. INCLUSION CRITERIA: The review will consider qualitative studies with participants who are 5 years of age and above, conducted anywhere in the world. We will exclude studies that are not identifiable through English titles or abstracts in English databases, and non-primary peer-reviewed evidence, such as biographies, newspapers, and magazines. METHODS: Key information sources include CINAHL, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, Embase, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, JSTOR, Soc Index, Project Muse, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, and OpenGrey. No time or language limits will be placed. Two independent reviewers will screen and retrieve potentially relevant studies in full. The full-text of selected studies will be assessed against the inclusion criteria. All included studies will undergo the assessment of methodological quality, data extraction, and the generation of a single comprehensive set of synthesized findings. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION NUMBER: PROSPERO CRD42019137616.

Visual Body Part Representation in the Lateral Occipitotemporal Cortex in Children/Adolescents and Adults.

The lateral occipitotemporal cortex (LOTC) that responds to human bodies and body parts has been implicated in social development and neurodevelopmental disorders like autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Neuroimaging studies using a representational similarity analysis (RSA) revealed that body representation in the LOTC of typically developing (TD) adults is categorized into 3 clusters: action effector body parts, noneffector body parts, and face parts. However, its organization of younger people (i.e., children and adolescents) and its association with individual traits remain unclear. In this functional MRI study, TD adults and children/adolescents observed photographs of hands, feet, arms, legs, chests, waists, upper/lower faces, the whole body, and chairs. The univariate analysis showed that fewer child/adolescent participants showed left LOTC activation in response to whole-body images (relative to those of chairs) than adult participants. Contrastingly, the RSA on both age groups revealed a comparable body representation with 3 clusters of body parts in the bilateral LOTC. Hence, this result indicates that, although response to whole-body images can differ, LOTC body part representations for children/ adolescents and adults are highly similar. Furthermore, sensory atypicality is associated with spatial LOTC organization, suggesting the importance of this region for understanding individual difference, which is frequently observed in ASD.

A pilot study of family-focused tele-intervention for children with developmental coordination disorder: development and lessons learned.

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is characterized by substantial delay in motor development, despite intact neuromuscular, intellectual, and social functions. Although it is estimated there is one child with DCD in every elementary school classroom, sufficient remedial treatment has not yet been provided in medical or educational systems. This article reports on the development of a family-focused tele-intervention program for children with DCD. Unlike conventional direct service delivery, the tele-intervention program offers parents a workbook, DVDs, telephone support, and a blog to teach children at home. This pilot work involved the development of prototype materials (Phase 1), trialing and process evaluation with 3 children and their families (Phase 2), refinement of the program, and a further trial with two other groups of 4 children and their families (Phases 3-4). The outcome of the pilot intervention was satisfactory, but more work is needed to resolve some outstanding issues regarding assessment, diagnosis, telephone consultation, Internet support systems, and discrepant intervention outcomes before tele-intervention is offered to a wider community.

Effect of postural instability on drawing errors in children: a synchronized kinematic analysis of hand drawing and body motion.

To investigate the role that postural stability plays in fine motor control, we assessed kinematics of the head, shoulder, elbow, and the pen during an accuracy drawing task in 24 children. Twelve children were classified into an accurate drawing (AD) group and 12 children into an inaccurate drawing (ID) group based on a manual dexterity task from the movement assessment battery for children [Henderson, S. E., & Sugden, D. A. (1992). Movement assessment battery for children. London: Psychological Corporation.]. Their parents completed a questionnaire to assess children's inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. An electromagnetic tracking system was used to monitor 3-D kinematic data of the body parts, while 2-D kinematic data of pen movement was simultaneously collected from a computer digitizer tablet. If a sudden body motion (1cm/s) occurred within a time window from one second prior to the onset of the drawing error to the end of the error, we considered that the error coincided with the extraneous body movement. For each drawing trial, the coincidence rate was computed as (number of coincidences)/(number of errors). The ID group had a significantly higher coincidence rate of head and shoulder movements compared with elbow movements, whereas coincidence rates did not differ between the three body parts in the AD group. Parental ratings of children's behavioral ratings of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity were not correlated with the coincidence rates. The results indicated that inaccurate drawing was a result of postural instability rather than fidgeting caused by inattention or hyperactivity/impulsivity.

Emotions surrounding friendships of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder in Japan: A qualitative interview study.

Emotions are embedded in culture and play a pivotal role in making friends and interacting with peers. To support the social participation of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) it is essential to understand their emotional life in the context of ethnic and school cultures. We are particularly interested in how anxiety and loneliness are experienced in developing and maintaining friendships in the daily encounters of adolescents with ASD in the specific context of Japanese schools, because these emotions could serve either as facilitators or barriers to social interaction, depending on how individuals manage them. The present qualitative study investigated perceptions of emotions related to friendship in the everyday school life of 11 adolescents with ASD in Japan. Data were collected by means of semi-structured individual interviews, which revealed a wide range of motivations for socialization, limited future prospects to deepen friendships, robust self-awareness of one's own social challenges, and conscious efforts to cope with these challenges. An inductive approach to data analysis resulted in four themes: social motivation, loneliness, anxiety, and distress. To our knowledge this is the first study to uncover the rich emotional life of adolescents with ASD in the context of their friendships in an Asian culture.

Altered perspective-dependent brain activation while viewing hands and associated imitation difficulties in individuals with autism spectrum disorder.

Background: Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) appear to have a unique awareness of their own body, which may be associated with difficulties of gestural interaction. In typically developing (TD) individuals, the perception of body parts is processed in various brain regions. For instance, activation of the lateral occipito-temporal cortex (LOTC) is known to depend on perspective (i.e., first- or third-person perspective) and identity (i.e., own vs. another person's body). In the present study, we examined how perspective and identity affect brain activation in individuals with ASD, and how perspective- and identity-dependent brain activation is associated with gestural imitation abilities. Methods: Eighteen young adults with ASD and 18 TD individuals participated in an fMRI study in which the participants observed their own or another person's hands from the first- and third-person perspectives. We examined whether the brain activation associated with perspective and identity was altered in individuals with ASD. Furthermore, we identified the brain regions the activity of which correlated with gestural imitation difficulties in individuals with ASD. Results: In the TD group, the left LOTC was more strongly activated by viewing a hand from the third-person perspective compared with the first-person perspective. This perspective effect in the left LOTC was significantly attenuated in the ASD group. We also observed significant group differences in the perspective effect in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Correlation analysis revealed that the perspective effect in the inferior parietal lobule (IPL) and cerebellum was associated with the gestural imitation ability in individuals with ASD. Conclusions: Our study suggests that atypical visual self-body recognition in individuals with ASD is associated with an altered perspective effect in the LOTC and mPFC, which are thought to be involved in the physical and core selves, respectively. Furthermore, the gestural imitation difficulty in individuals with ASD might be associated with the altered activation in the IPL and cerebellum, but not in the LOTC. These findings shed light on common and divergent neural mechanisms underlying atypical visual self-body awareness and gestural interaction in ASD.

Perceptions of a cognitive rehabilitation group by older people living with cognitive impairment and their caregivers: A qualitative interview study.

Cognitive rehabilitation has been developed to improve quality of life, activities of daily living and mood for people with cognitive impairment, but the voice of people with cognitive impairment has been underrepresented. This study aimed to understand the experience of people living with cognitive impairment, as well as their caregivers who took part in a cognitive rehabilitation intervention programme. Twelve individuals with cognitive impairment and 15 caregivers participated in individual qualitative interviews. The interview data were analysed in three steps: 1) familiarisation of the transcripts; 2) identification of themes; 3) re-interpretation, refinement and integration of themes with methodological auditors. Both participants living with cognitive impairment and caregivers valued the comfortable environment with friendly, caring and supportive group leaders who taught practical tips and strategies. The participants living with cognitive impairment enjoyed socialising with like others. Caregivers benefited from learning about memory problems and sharing their challenges with other caregivers. The participants living with cognitive impairment emphasised the benefits of relational and practical aspects, whereas the caregivers valued the informational and emotional support. In conclusion, both participants living with cognitive impairment and caregivers found the cognitive rehabilitation group useful.

Accuracy of drawing in a dual-task and resistance-to-distraction study: motor or attention deficit?

To determine whether manual incoordination is caused by attention deficit or not, we used an accuracy drawing task as a primary task in dual-task and resistance-to-distraction studies, and examined if thus measured attention could differentiate inattention (IA) and combined (CO) subtypes of ADHD. The secondary tasks and distractions failed to lower the primary task performance in IA, CO and control groups. We also compared the impairment scores of the accuracy drawing tasks from the Movement Assessment Battery for Children [Henderson, S. E., & Sugden, D. A. (1992). Movement assessment battery for children. London: Psychological Corporation.] between the groups with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or developmental coordination disorder-inaccurate drawing type (DCD-ID). There were no group differences in the impairment score between the control and the ADHD groups, and between ADHD and ADHD plus DCD-ID groups. We concluded that inaccurate drawing is not caused by attention deficit, but that it is a manifestation of a motor deficit as a separate entity from attention deficit.

The influence of developmental coordination disorder and attention deficits on associated movements in children.

The relationship between associated movements (AMs) and level of motor performance is not well understood. In this study we investigated whether children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), with (n = 10) and without (n = 10) attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and a control group (n = 10), differed in the severity of AMs. A total AM severity score was obtained for each child by rating their performance on AM tasks. Both groups with motor difficulties had significantly more severe AMs than the control group. A significant correlation was found between level of motor performance and total AM scores (r = -.62). Our results suggest that level of motor performance should be considered in future research attempting to understand individual differences in severity of AMs as a function of motor, learning, and behavioural disorders.

Multiple birth versus neonatal brain lesions in children born prematurely as predictors of perceptuo-motor impairment at age 6.

Our primary objective in this study was to test the multiple birth hypothesis, which asserts that multiple gestation and delivery, per se, entail a greater likelihood of adverse outcome than for singletons. Our second objective was to assess the power of various neonatal risk indicators to predict developmental status at school age. In particular, we sought to weigh multiple birth as an indicator of outcome against brain lesions visualized by ultrasonography. Additional neonatal indicators included birth weight, gestational age, weight relative to gestational age, and gender. At 6 years of age, children were assessed on selected aspects of perceptuo-motor competence and verbal ability. Previous findings favoring the multiple birth hypothesis have been mostly confined to comparisons of unmatched groups of twins and singletons. This study limited investigation to children born prematurely (before 35 weeks gestation) and included comparison of multiplet-singleton pairs, matched on type and extent of any lesions, gestational age, and birth weight. The full sample comprised 124 singletons and 45 multiplets (twins, triplets, and quadruplets). About half exhibited brain lesions in the neonatal period. In this population, there was no tendency for singletons to do better than multiplets, either in the unmatched or matched samples, at 6 years of age. Lesions, supplemented by gestational age, were highly predictive of outcome on the selected measures. In contrast, the multiple birth factor was of no predictive utility.

Effects on memory of verbal labeling for hand movements in persons with Alzheimer's disease.

This study examined 1) whether patients diagnosed with dementia of the Alzheimer type spontaneously form verbal labels to remember nonmeaningful sequences of hand movements, 2) whether an instruction for a verbal labeling (VL) strategy could enhance memory performance, and 3) whether a relationship exists between the memory span for hand movements and a score on the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Of 18 Alzheimer's patients, 16 did not use the VL strategy spontaneously. However, if instructed, 12 of these 16 were able to use the technique. Of these 12, four were able to retain the strategy. There was a significant correlation only between the movement memory span and the MMSE. Meta-memory of VL seems independent of visuospatial memory and cognitive status.

Meta review of systematic and meta analytic reviews on movement differences, effect of movement based interventions, and the underlying neural mechanisms in autism spectrum disorder.

PURPOSES: To identify and appraise evidence from published systematic and meta analytic reviews on (1) movement differences of individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD); (2) the effects of movement based interventions for ASD; (3) hypothesized underlying neural mechanisms for the movement characteristics. METHODS: A meta review of published systematic and meta analytic reviews on movement differences, structural, and functional brain anomalies in ASD and the effects of movement based interventions for individuals with ASD between 1806 and October 2012. The methodological quality of the identified systematic and meta analytic reviews was independently assessed by two assessors with the assessment of multiple systematic reviews (AMSTAR). RESULTS: The search yielded a total of 12 reviews that met the inclusion/exclusion criteria. The methodological quality of the reviews varied, but the review conclusions were similar. Although individuals with ASD generally perform less well than age-matched controls in developmental movement tasks, there are few exceptions whose movement abilities are intact. Most movement based interventions report their efficacies. However, all existing studies employ the research design that is inherently incapable of providing strong evidence, and they often fail to report the extent of psychosocial interactions within the movement interventions. The hypothesized neural mechanisms are still under development and speculative in nature. CONCLUSIONS: It is premature to designate movement disturbance as a core symptom of ASD. The effects of movement based interventions on the present ASD core symptoms need to be further validated by stronger evidence and verified theoretical mechanisms linking ASD with movement disorders.