Historical natural kinds and mineralogy: Systematizing contingency in the context of necessity.

The advancement of science depends upon developing classification protocols that systematize natural objects and phenomena into "natural kinds"-categorizations that are conjectured to represent genuine divisions in nature by virtue of playing central roles in the articulation of successful scientific theories. In the physical sciences, theoretically powerful classification systems, such as the periodic table, are typically time independent. Similarly, the standard classification of mineral species by the International Mineralogical Association's Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature, and Classification relies on idealized chemical composition and crystal structure, which are time-independent attributes selected on the basis of theoretical considerations from chemical theory and solid-state physics. However, when considering mineral kinds in the historical context of planetary evolution, a different, time-dependent classification scheme is warranted. We propose an "evolutionary" system of mineral classification based on recognition of the role played by minerals in the origin and development of planetary systems. Lacking a comprehensive theory of chemical evolution capable of explaining the time-dependent pattern of chemical complexification exhibited by our universe, we recommend a bootstrapping approach to mineral classification based on observations of geological field studies, astronomical observations, laboratory experiments, and analyses of natural samples and their environments. This approach holds the potential to elucidate underlying universal principles of cosmic chemical complexification.

Evaluating Mineral Lattices as Evolutionary Proxies for Metalloprotein Evolution.

Protein coordinated iron-sulfur clusters drive electron flow within metabolic pathways for organisms throughout the tree of life. It is not known how iron-sulfur clusters were first incorporated into proteins. Structural analogies to iron-sulfide minerals present on early Earth, suggest a connection in the evolution of both proteins and minerals. The availability of large protein and mineral crystallographic structure data sets, provides an opportunity to explore co-evolution of proteins and minerals on a large-scale using informatics approaches. However, quantitative comparisons are confounded by the infinite, repeating nature of the mineral lattice, in contrast to metal clusters in proteins, which are finite in size. We address this problem using the Niggli reduction to transform a mineral lattice to a finite, unique structure that when translated reproduces the crystal lattice. Protein and reduced mineral structures were represented as quotient graphs with the edges and nodes corresponding to bonds and atoms, respectively. We developed a graph theory-based method to calculate the maximum common connected edge subgraph (MCCES) between mineral and protein quotient graphs. MCCES can accommodate differences in structural volumes and easily allows additional chemical criteria to be considered when calculating similarity. To account for graph size differences, we use the Tversky similarity index. Using consistent criteria, we found little similarity between putative ancient iron-sulfur protein clusters and iron-sulfur mineral lattices, suggesting these metal sites are not as evolutionarily connected as once thought. We discuss possible evolutionary implications of these findings in addition to suggesting an alternative proxy, mineral surfaces, for better understanding the coevolution of the geosphere and biosphere.

An evolutionary system of mineralogy. Part III: Primary chondrule mineralogy (4566 to 4561 Ma).

Information-rich attributes of minerals reveal their physical, chemical, and biological modes of origin in the context of planetary evolution, and thus they provide the basis for an evolutionary system of mineralogy. Part III of this system considers the formation of 43 different primary crystalline and amorphous phases in chondrules, which are diverse igneous droplets that formed in environments with high dust/gas ratios during an interval of planetesimal accretion and differentiation between 4566 and 4561 Ma. Chondrule mineralogy is complex, with several generations of initial droplet formation via various proposed heating mechanisms, followed in many instances by multiple episodes of reheating and partial melting. Primary chondrule mineralogy thus reflects a dynamic stage of mineral evolution, when the diversity and distribution of natural condensed solids expanded significantly.

An evolutionary system of mineralogy. Part I: Stellar mineralogy (>13 to 4.6 Ga).

Minerals preserve records of the physical, chemical, and biological histories of their origins and subsequent alteration, and thus provide a vivid narrative of the evolution of Earth and other worlds through billions of years of cosmic history. Mineral properties, including trace and minor elements, ratios of isotopes, solid and fluid inclusions, external morphologies, and other idiosyncratic attributes, represent information that points to specific modes of formation and subsequent environmental histories-information essential to understanding the co-evolving geosphere and biosphere. This perspective suggests an opportunity to amplify the existing system of mineral classification, by which minerals are defined solely on idealized end-member chemical compositions and crystal structures. Here we present the first in a series of contributions to explore a complementary evolutionary system of mineralogy-a classification scheme that links mineral species to their paragenetic modes. The earliest stage of mineral evolution commenced with the appearance of the first crystals in the universe at >13 Ga and continues today in the expanding, cooling atmospheres of countless evolved stars, which host the high-temperature (T > 1000 K), low-pressure (P < 10-2 atm) condensation of refractory minerals and amorphous phases. Most stardust is thought to originate in three distinct processes in carbon- and/or oxygen-rich mineral-forming stars: (1) condensation in the cooling, expanding atmospheres of asymptotic giant branch stars; (2) during the catastrophic explosions of supernovae, most commonly core collapse (Type II) supernovae; and (3) classical novae explosions, the consequence of runaway fusion reactions at the surface of a binary white dwarf star. Each stellar environment imparts distinctive isotopic and trace element signatures to the micro- and nanoscale stardust grains that are recovered from meteorites and micrometeorites collected on Earth's surface, by atmospheric sampling, and from asteroids and comets. Although our understanding of the diverse mineral-forming environments of stars is as yet incomplete, we present a preliminary catalog of 41 distinct natural kinds of stellar minerals, representing 22 official International Mineralogical Association (IMA) mineral species, as well as 2 as yet unapproved crystalline phases and 3 kinds of non-crystalline condensed phases not codified by the IMA.

An evolutionary system of mineralogy. Part II: Interstellar and solar nebula primary condensation mineralogy (>4.565 Ga).

The evolutionary system of mineralogy relies on varied physical and chemical attributes, including trace elements, isotopes, solid and fluid inclusions, and other information-rich characteristics, to understand processes of mineral formation and to place natural condensed phases in the deep-time context of planetary evolution. Part I of this system reviewed the earliest refractory phases that condense at T > 1000 K within the turbulent expanding and cooling atmospheres of highly evolved stars. Part II considers the subsequent formation of primary crystalline and amorphous phases by condensation in three distinct mineral-forming environments, each of which increased mineralogical diversity and distribution prior to the accretion of planetesimals >4.5 billion years ago. INTERSTELLAR MOLECULAR SOLIDS: (1)Varied crystalline and amorphous molecular solids containing primarily H, C, O, and N are observed to condense in cold, dense molecular clouds in the interstellar medium (10 < T < 20 K; P < 10-13 atm). With the possible exception of some nanoscale organic condensates preserved in carbonaceous meteorites, the existence of these phases is documented primarily by telescopic observations of absorption and emission spectra of interstellar molecules in radio, microwave, or infrared wavelengths. NEBULAR AND CIRCUMSTELLAR ICE: (2)Evidence from infrared observations and laboratory experiments suggest that cubic H2O ("cubic ice") condenses as thin crystalline mantles on oxide and silicate dust grains in cool, distant nebular and circumstellar regions where T ~100 K. PRIMARY CONDENSED PHASES OF THE INNER SOLAR NEBULA: (3)The earliest phase of nebular mineralogy saw the formation of primary refractory minerals that solidified through high-temperature condensation (1100 < T < 1800 K; 10-6 < P < 10-2 atm) in the solar nebula more than 4.565 billion years ago. These earliest mineral phases originating in our solar system formed prior to the accretion of planetesimals and are preserved in calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions, ultra-refractory inclusions, and amoeboid olivine aggregates.

Silicic volcanism on Mars evidenced by tridymite in high-SiO2 sedimentary rock at Gale crater.

Tridymite, a low-pressure, high-temperature (>870 °C) SiO2 polymorph, was detected in a drill sample of laminated mudstone (Buckskin) at Marias Pass in Gale crater, Mars, by the Chemistry and Mineralogy X-ray diffraction instrument onboard the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity The tridymitic mudstone has ∼40 wt.% crystalline and ∼60 wt.% X-ray amorphous material and a bulk composition with ∼74 wt.% SiO2 (Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer analysis). Plagioclase (∼17 wt.% of bulk sample), tridymite (∼14 wt.%), sanidine (∼3 wt.%), cation-deficient magnetite (∼3 wt.%), cristobalite (∼2 wt.%), and anhydrite (∼1 wt.%) are the mudstone crystalline minerals. Amorphous material is silica-rich (∼39 wt.% opal-A and/or high-SiO2 glass and opal-CT), volatile-bearing (16 wt.% mixed cation sulfates, phosphates, and chlorides-perchlorates-chlorates), and has minor TiO2 and Fe2O3T oxides (∼5 wt.%). Rietveld refinement yielded a monoclinic structural model for a well-crystalline tridymite, consistent with high formation temperatures. Terrestrial tridymite is commonly associated with silicic volcanism, and detritus from such volcanism in a "Lake Gale" catchment environment can account for Buckskin's tridymite, cristobalite, feldspar, and any residual high-SiO2 glass. These cogenetic detrital phases are possibly sourced from the Gale crater wall/rim/central peak. Opaline silica could form during diagenesis from high-SiO2 glass, as amorphous precipitated silica, or as a residue of acidic leaching in the sediment source region or at Marias Pass. The amorphous mixed-cation salts and oxides and possibly the crystalline magnetite (otherwise detrital) are primary precipitates and/or their diagenesis products derived from multiple infiltrations of aqueous solutions having variable compositions, temperatures, and acidities. Anhydrite is post lithification fracture/vein fill.

The origin and implications of clay minerals from Yellowknife Bay, Gale crater, Mars.

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover Curiosity has documented a section of fluvio-lacustrine strata at Yellowknife Bay (YKB), an embayment on the floor of Gale crater, approximately 500 m east of the Bradbury landing site. X-ray diffraction (XRD) data and evolved gas analysis (EGA) data from the CheMin and SAM instruments show that two powdered mudstone samples (named John Klein and Cumberland) drilled from the Sheepbed member of this succession contain up to ~20 wt% clay minerals. A trioctahedral smectite, likely a ferrian saponite, is the only clay mineral phase detected in these samples. Smectites of the two samples exhibit different 001 spacing under the low partial pressures of H2O inside the CheMin instrument (relative humidity <1%). Smectite interlayers in John Klein collapsed sometime between clay mineral formation and the time of analysis to a basal spacing of 10 Å, but largely remain open in the Cumberland sample with a basal spacing of ~13.2 Å. Partial intercalation of Cumberland smectites by metal-hydroxyl groups, a common process in certain pedogenic and lacustrine settings on Earth, is our favored explanation for these differences. The relatively low abundances of olivine and enriched levels of magnetite in the Sheepbed mudstone, when compared with regional basalt compositions derived from orbital data, suggest that clay minerals formed with magnetite in situ via aqueous alteration of olivine. Mass-balance calculations are permissive of such a reaction. Moreover, the Sheepbed mudstone mineral assemblage is consistent with minimal inputs of detrital clay minerals from the crater walls and rim. Early diagenetic fabrics suggest clay mineral formation prior to lithification. Thermodynamic modeling indicates that the production of authigenic magnetite and saponite at surficial temperatures requires a moderate supply of oxidants, allowing circum-neutral pH. The kinetics of olivine alteration suggest the presence of fluids for thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. Mineralogical evidence of the persistence of benign aqueous conditions at YKB for extended periods indicates a potentially habitable environment where life could establish itself. Mediated oxidation of Fe2+ in olivine to Fe3+ in magnetite, and perhaps in smectites provided a potential energy source for organisms.

Agardite-(Y), Cu(2+) 6Y(AsO4)3(OH)6·3H2O.

Agardite-(Y), with a refined formula of Cu(2+) 5.70(Y0.69Ca0.31)[(As0.83P0.17)O4]3(OH)6·3H2O [ideally Cu(2+) 6Y(AsO4)3(OH)6·3H2O, hexa-copper(II) yttrium tris-(arsenate) hexa-hydroxide trihydrate], belongs to the mixite mineral group which is characterized by the general formula Cu(2+) 6 A(TO4)3(OH)6·3H2O, where nine-coordinated cations in the A-site include rare earth elements along with Al, Ca, Pb, or Bi, and the T-site contains P or As. This study presents the first structure determination of agardite-(Y). It is based on the single-crystal X-ray diffraction of a natural sample from Jote West mine, Pampa Larga Mining District, Copiapo, Chile. The general structural feature of agardite-(Y) is characterized by infinite chains of edge-sharing CuO5 square pyramids (site symmetry 1) extending down the c axis, connected in the ab plane by edge-sharing YO9 polyhedra (site symmetry -6..) and corner-sharing AsO4 tetra-hedra (site symmetry m..). Hy-droxyl groups occupy each corner of the CuO5-square pyramids not shared by a neighboring As or Y atom. Each YO9 polyhedron is surrounded by three tubular channels. The walls of the channels, parallel to the c axis, are six-membered hexa-gonal rings comprised of CuO5 and AsO4 polyhedra in a 2:1 ratio, and contain free mol-ecules of lattice water.

Lanthanite-(Nd), Nd2(CO3)3·8H2O.

Lanthanite-(Nd), ideally Nd2(CO3)3·8H2O [dineodymium(III) tricarbonate octa-hydrate], is a member of the lanthanite mineral group characterized by the general formula REE2(CO3)3·8H2O, where REE is a 10-coordinated rare earth element. Based on single-crystal X-ray diffraction of a natural sample from Mitsukoshi, Hizen-cho, Karatsu City, Saga Prefecture, Japan, this study presents the first structure determination of lanthanite-(Nd). Its structure is very similar to that of other members of the lanthanite group. It is composed of infinite sheets made up of corner- and edge-sharing of two NdO10-polyhedra (both with site symmetry ..2) and two carbonate triangles (site symmetries ..2 and 1) parallel to the ab plane, and stacked perpendicular to c. These layers are linked to one another only through hydrogen bonding involving the water mol-ecules.

Predicting new mineral occurrences and planetary analog environments via mineral association analysis.

The locations of minerals and mineral-forming environments, despite being of great scientific importance and economic interest, are often difficult to predict due to the complex nature of natural systems. In this work, we embrace the complexity and inherent "messiness" of our planet's intertwined geological, chemical, and biological systems by employing machine learning to characterize patterns embedded in the multidimensionality of mineral occurrence and associations. These patterns are a product of, and therefore offer insight into, the Earth's dynamic evolutionary history. Mineral association analysis quantifies high-dimensional multicorrelations in mineral localities across the globe, enabling the identification of previously unknown mineral occurrences, as well as mineral assemblages and their associated paragenetic modes. In this study, we have predicted (i) the previously unknown mineral inventory of the Mars analogue site, Tecopa Basin, (ii) new locations of uranium minerals, particularly those important to understanding the oxidation-hydration history of uraninite, (iii) new deposits of critical minerals, specifically rare earth element (REE)- and Li-bearing phases, and (iv) changes in mineralization and mineral associations through deep time, including a discussion of possible biases in mineralogical data and sampling; furthermore, we have (v) tested and confirmed several of these mineral occurrence predictions in nature, thereby providing ground truth of the predictive method. Mineral association analysis is a predictive method that will enhance our understanding of mineralization and mineralizing environments on Earth, across our solar system, and through deep time.

Redetermination of kovdorskite, Mg(2)PO(4)(OH)·3H(2)O.

The crystal structure of kovdorskite, ideally Mg(2)PO(4)(OH)·3H(2)O (dimagnesium phosphate hydroxide trihydrate), was reported previously with isotropic displacement paramaters only and without H-atom positions [Ovchinnikov et al. (1980 ▶). Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR.255, 351-354]. In this study, the kovdorskite structure is redetermined based on single-crystal X-ray diffraction data from a sample from the type locality, the Kovdor massif, Kola Peninsula, Russia, with anisotropic displacement parameters for all non-H atoms, with all H-atom located and with higher precision. Moreover, inconsistencies of the previously published structural data with respect to reported and calculated X-ray powder patterns are also discussed. The structure of kovdorskite contains a set of four edge-sharing MgO(6) octa-hedra inter-connected by PO(4) tetra-hedra and O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming columns and channels parallel to [001]. The hydrogen-bonding system in kovdorskite is formed through the water mol-ecules, with the OH(-) ions contributing little, if any, to the system, as indicated by the long H⋯A distances (>2.50 Å) to the nearest O atoms. The hydrogen-bond lengths determined from the structure refinement agree well with Raman spectroscopic data.

Robertsite, Ca(2)Mn(III) (3)O(2)(PO(4))(3)·3H(2)O.

Robertsite, ideally Ca(2)Mn(3)O(2)(PO(4))(3)·3H(2)O [calcium manganese(III) tris-(orthophosphate) trihydrate], can be associated with the arseniosiderite structural group characterized by the general formula Ca(2)A(3)O(2)(TO(4))(3)·nH(2)O, with A = Fe, Mn; T = As, P; and n = 2 or 3. In this study, single-crystal X-ray diffraction data were used to determine the robertsite structure from a twinned crystal from the type locality, the Tip Top mine, Custer County, South Dakota, USA, and to refine anisotropic displacement parameters for all atoms. The general structural feature of robertsite resembles that of the other two members of the arseniosiderite group, the structures of which have previously been reported. It is characterized by sheets of [MnO(6)] octa-hedra in the form of nine-membered pseudo-trigonal rings. Located at the center of each nine-membered ring is a PO(4) tetra-hedron, and the other eight PO(4) tetra-hedra sandwich the Mn-oxide sheets. The six different Ca(2+) ions are seven-coordinated in form of distorted penta-gonal bipyramids, [CaO(5)(H(2)O)(2)], if Ca-O distances less than 2.85 Šare considered. Along with hydrogen bonding involving the water mol-ecules, they hold the manganese-phosphate sheets together. All nine [MnO(6)] octa-hedra are distorted by the Jahn-Teller effect.

Nioboaeschynite-(Ce), Ce(NbTi)O(6).

Nioboaeschynite-(Ce), ideally Ce(NbTi)O(6) [cerium(III) niobium(V) titanium(IV) hexa-oxide; refined formula of the natural sample is Ca(0.25)Ce(0.79)(Nb(1.14)Ti(0.86))O(6)], belongs to the aeschynite mineral group which is characterized by the general formula AB(2)(O,OH)(6), where eight-coordinated A is a rare earth element, Ca, Th or Fe, and six-coordinated B is Ti, Nb, Ta or W. The general structural feature of nioboaeschynite-(Ce) resembles that of the other members of the aeschynite group. It is characterized by edge-sharing dimers of [(Nb,Ti)O(6)] octa-hedra which share corners to form a three-dimensional framework, with the A sites located in channels parallel to the b axis. The average A-O and B-O bond lengths in nioboaeschynite-(Ce) are 2.471 and 1.993 Å, respectively. Moreover, another eight-coordinated site, designated as the C site, is also located in the channels and is partially occupied by A-type cations. Additionally, the refinement revealed a splitting of the A site, with Ca displaced slightly from Ce (0.266 Šapart), presumably resulting from the crystal-chemical differences between the Ce(3+) and Ca(2+) cations.

Mineral Element Insiders and Outliers Play Crucial Roles in Biological Evolution.

The geosphere of primitive Earth was the source of life's essential building blocks, and the geochemical interactions among chemical elements can inform the origins of biological roles of each element. Minerals provide a record of the fundamental properties that each chemical element contributes to crustal composition, evolution, and subsequent biological utilization. In this study, we investigate correlations between the mineral species and bulk crustal composition of each chemical element. There are statistically significant correlations between the number of elements that each element forms minerals with (#-mineral-elements) and the log of the number of mineral species that each element occurs in, and between #-mineral-elements and the log of the number of mineral localities of that element. There is a lesser correlation between the log of the crustal percentage of each element and #-mineral-elements. In the crustal percentage vs. #-mineral-elements plot, positive outliers have either important biological roles (S, Cu) or toxic biological impacts (Pb, As), while negative outliers have no biological importance (Sc, Ga, Br, Yb). In particular, S is an important bridge element between organic (e.g., amino acids) and inorganic (metal cofactors) biological components. While C and N rarely form minerals together, the two elements commonly form minerals with H, which coincides with the role of H as an electron donor/carrier in biological nitrogen and carbon fixation. Both abundant crustal percentage vs. #-mineral-elements insiders (elements that follow the correlation) and less abundant outsiders (positive outliers from the correlation) have important biological functions as essential structural elements and catalytic cofactors.

The expanding network of mineral chemistry throughout earth history reveals global shifts in crustal chemistry during the Proterozoic.

Earth surface redox conditions are intimately linked to the co-evolution of the geosphere and biosphere. Minerals provide a record of Earth's evolving surface and interior chemistry in geologic time due to many different processes (e.g. tectonic, volcanic, sedimentary, oxidative, etc.). Here, we show how the bipartite network of minerals and their shared constituent elements expanded and evolved over geologic time. To further investigate network expansion over time, we derive and apply a novel metric (weighted mineral element electronegativity coefficient of variation; wMEECV) to quantify intra-mineral electronegativity variation with respect to redox. We find that element electronegativity and hard soft acid base (HSAB) properties are central factors in mineral redox chemistry under a wide range of conditions. Global shifts in mineral element electronegativity and HSAB associations represented by wMEECV changes at 1.8 and 0.6 billion years ago align with decreased continental elevation followed by the transition from the intermediate ocean and glaciation eras to post-glaciation, increased atmospheric oxygen in the Phanerozoic, and enhanced continental weathering. Consequently, network analysis of mineral element electronegativity and HSAB properties reveal that orogenic activity, evolving redox state of the mantle, planetary oxygenation, and climatic transitions directly impacted the evolving chemical complexity of Earth's crust.

Evidence for the oxidation of Earth's crust from the evolution of manganese minerals.

Analysis of manganese mineral occurrences and valence states demonstrate oxidation of Earth's crust through time. Changes in crustal redox state are critical to Earth's evolution, but few methods exist for evaluating spatially averaged crustal redox state through time. Manganese (Mn) is a redox-sensitive metal whose variable oxidation states and abundance in crustal minerals make it a useful tracer of crustal oxidation. We find that the average oxidation state of crustal Mn occurrences has risen in the last 1 billion years in response to atmospheric oxygenation following a 66 ± 1 million-year time lag. We interpret this lag as the average time necessary to equilibrate the shallow crust to atmospheric oxygen fugacity. This study employs large mineralogical databases to evaluate geochemical conditions through Earth's history, and we propose that this and other mineral data sets form an important class of proxies that constrain the evolving redox state of various Earth reservoirs.

Cluster Analysis of Presolar Silicon Carbide Grains: Evaluation of Their Classification and Astrophysical Implications.

Cluster analysis of presolar silicon carbide grains based on literature data for 12C/13C, 14N/15N, δ 30Si/28Si, and δ 29Si/28Si including or not inferred initial 26Al/27Al data, reveals nine clusters agreeing with previously defined grain types but also highlighting new divisions. Mainstream grains reside in three clusters probably representing different parent star metallicities. One of these clusters has a compact core, with a narrow range of composition, pointing to an enhanced production of SiC grains in asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars with a narrow range of masses and metallicities. The addition of 26Al/27Al data highlights a cluster of mainstream grains, enriched in 15N and 26Al, which cannot be explained by current AGB models. We defined two AB grain clusters, one with 15N and 26Al excesses, and the other with 14N and smaller 26Al excesses, in agreement with recent studies. Their definition does not use the solar N isotopic ratio as a divider, and the contour of the 26Al-rich AB cluster identified in this study is in better agreement with core-collapse supernova models. We also found a cluster with a mixture of putative nova and AB grains, which may have formed in supernova or nova environments. X grains make up two clusters, having either strongly correlated Si isotopic ratios or deviating from the 2/3 slope line in the Si 3-isotope plot. Finally, most Y and Z grains are jointly clustered, suggesting that the previous use of 12C/13C = 100 as a divider for Y grains was arbitrary. Our results show that cluster analysis is a powerful tool to interpret the data in light of stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis modeling and highlight the need of more multi-element isotopic data for better classification.

Global earth mineral inventory: A data legacy.

Minerals contain important clues to understanding the complex geologic history of Earth and other planetary bodies. Therefore, geologists have been collecting mineral samples and compiling data about these samples for centuries. These data have been used to better understand the movement of continental plates, the oxidation of Earth's atmosphere and the water regime of ancient martian landscapes. Datasets found at 'RRUFF.info/Evolution' and 'mindat.org' have documented a wealth of mineral occurrences around the world. One of the main goals in geoinformatics has been to facilitate discovery by creating and merging datasets from various scientific fields and using statistical methods and visualization tools to inspire and test hypotheses applicable to modelling Earth's past environments. To help achieve this goal, we have compiled physical, chemical and geological properties of minerals and linked them to the above-mentioned mineral occurrence datasets. As a part of the Deep Time Data Infrastructure, funded by the W.M. Keck Foundation, with significant support from the Deep Carbon Observatory (DCO) and the A.P. Sloan Foundation, GEMI ('Global Earth Mineral Inventory') was developed from the need of researchers to have all of the required mineral data visible in a single portal, connected by a robust, yet easy to understand schema. Our data legacy integrates these resources into a digestible format for exploration and analysis and has allowed researchers to gain valuable insights from mineralogical data. GEMI can be considered a network, with every node representing some feature of the datasets, for example, a node can represent geological parameters like colour, hardness or lustre. Exploring subnetworks gives the researcher a specific view of the data required for the task at hand. GEMI is accessible through the DCO Data Portal (https://dx.deepcarbon.net/11121/6200-6954-6634-8243-CC). We describe our efforts in compiling GEMI, the Data Policies for usage and sharing, and the evaluation metrics for this data legacy.

The Paleomineralogy of the Hadean Eon Revisited.

A preliminary list of plausible near-surface minerals present during Earth's Hadean Eon (>4.0 Ga) should be expanded to include: (1) phases that might have formed by precipitation of organic crystals prior to the rise of predation by cellular life; (2) minerals associated with large bolide impacts, especially through the generation of hydrothermal systems in circumferential fracture zones; and (3) local formation of minerals with relatively oxidized transition metals through abiological redox processes, such as photo-oxidation. Additional mineral diversity arises from the occurrence of some mineral species that form more than one 'natural kind', each with distinct chemical and morphological characteristics that arise by different paragenetic processes. Rare minerals, for example those containing essential B, Mo, or P, are not necessary for the origins of life. Rather, many common minerals incorporate those and other elements as trace and minor constituents. A rich variety of chemically reactive sites were thus available at the exposed surfaces of common Hadean rock-forming minerals.

Clay mineral diversity and abundance in sedimentary rocks of Gale crater, Mars.

Clay minerals provide indicators of the evolution of aqueous conditions and possible habitats for life on ancient Mars. Analyses by the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity show that ~3.5-billion year (Ga) fluvio-lacustrine mudstones in Gale crater contain up to ~28 weight % (wt %) clay minerals. We demonstrate that the species of clay minerals deduced from x-ray diffraction and evolved gas analysis show a strong paleoenvironmental dependency. While perennial lake mudstones are characterized by Fe-saponite, we find that stratigraphic intervals associated with episodic lake drying contain Al-rich, Fe3+-bearing dioctahedral smectite, with minor (3 wt %) quantities of ferripyrophyllite, interpreted as wind-blown detritus, found in candidate aeolian deposits. Our results suggest that dioctahedral smectite formed via near-surface chemical weathering driven by fluctuations in lake level and atmospheric infiltration, a process leading to the redistribution of nutrients and potentially influencing the cycling of gases that help regulate climate.