Perennial transmission of malaria in the low altitude areas of Baringo County, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Malaria causes the greatest public health burden in sub-Saharan Africa where high mortality occurs mainly in children under 5 years of age. Traditionally, malaria has been reported mainly in the lowlands endemic regions of western Kenya, while the highlands of the Rift Valley have been relatively free except for the sporadic epidemics in some areas. Baringo County is located in the Kenyan highlands. The county generally experiences seasonal transmission of malaria. A few hotspots which experience continuous malaria transmission in the county do however exist. The objective of this study was to assess malaria infection status and identify areas with continuous transmissions with a view to mapping out probable transmission hot spots useful in mounting focused interventions within the county. METHODS: Systematic sampling was employed to identify 1668 primary school pupils from fifteen primary schools located in 4 ecological zones (lowland, midland, highland and riverine) of three sub-counties of Baringo. Finger prick blood sampling was done every 4 months (during the dry season in February/March, after the long rains in June/July and short rains in November 2015). Malaria occurrence was tested using rapid diagnostic test kit (CareStart HRP-2 Pf). Microscopic examination was done on all RDT positive and 10% of negative cases. RESULTS: A total of 268 (16.1%), out of 1668 pupils tested positive for Plasmodium falciparum by RDT; 78% had a single episode, 16.8% had 2 episodes, 4.9% had 3 episodes and 0.4% had 4 episodes. The riverine zone had the highest malaria cases (23.2%) followed by lowlands (0.9%). No malaria cases were detected in the midland zone while highland zone recorded only few cases during the third follow up. Up to 10.7% of malaria cases were reported in the dry season, 2.9% during the long rains and 5.7% in short rains season. CONCLUSIONS: Malaria infection was prevalent in Baringo County and was mainly restricted to the riverine zone where transmission is continuous throughout the year. High malaria prevalence occurred in the dry season compared to the wet season. Even though malaria transmission is relatively low compared to endemic regions of Kenya, there is a need for continued monitoring of transmission dynamics under changing climatic conditions as well as establishing expanded malaria control strategies especially within the riverine zone which would include an integrated mosquito control and chemotherapy for infected individuals.

Building subnational capacities in animal health to deliver frontline cross-sectoral health services in Kenya.

Introduction: Operationalizing effective subnational veterinary services as major contributor to disease surveillance, reporting, diagnoses and One Health requires resources and mindset change. Here we describe workforce capacity building in animal health in Kenya and an approach that can be used to skill-up this workforce to respond beyond animal health challenges to emergent One Health realities and public health emergencies. Furthermore, triggering a paradigm shift has been identified for impactful delivery of health services, thus mindset change are important for learning new skills, but they also affect the way that we think about everything, for instance training in field epidemiology. Emphasis was therefore placed on skills, beliefs, and mindset shift. Methods: Contextualized within the Kenyan environment, this description identifies problems likely to be found elsewhere: They are (a) The limited programs that offer structured and routine on-the-job training for animal health workers; (b) Unequal distribution and inadequate quantity and quality of highly skilled workforce with appropriate technical training and scientific skills to combat public (and animal) health challenges at the frontline; (c) Health challenges occasioned by climate change and drought, including feed, and water scarcity; and (d) Inadequate contingency, preparedness, and response planning for effective deployment of ready-to-trigger workforce capacity. In-Service Applied Veterinary Epidemiology Training (ISAVET) is a four-month long training program targeted at capacity building of frontline animal health professionals. The training, which is currently implemented in 17 African countries, is innovative and a customized field epidemiology program, which responds to specific needs in animal health and contribute to approaches utilizing One Health. Results: Several trainees have marked mindset change as shown in the outputs and outcomes. Positive attitudes towards improving animal health surveillance were noted during the evaluation process. Discussion and Conclusion: Most existing workforce capacities in the animal and public health systems were built for specific fields, and hardly respond optimally for cross-sectoral purposes. We proposed customised in-service applied veterinary epidemiology training that bypasses narrow-scoped workforce development but meets multifunctional, multidisciplinary and multisectoral needs before and during emergencies.

Effects of Land-Use and Environmental Factors on Snail Distribution and Trematode Infection in Ethiopia.

Freshwater snails are intermediate hosts for several snail-borne diseases affecting humans and animals. Understanding the distribution of snail intermediate hosts and their infection status is very important to plan and implement effective disease prevention and control interventions. In this study, we determined the abundance, distribution, and trematode infection status of freshwater snails in two agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia. We sampled snails from 13 observation sites and examined them for trematode infections using a natural cercarial shedding method. A redundancy analysis (RDA) was used to examine the relationship between snail abundance and environmental variables. Overall, a total of 615 snails belonging to three species were identified. Lymnea natalensis and Bulinus globosus were the dominant snail species, representing 41% and 40% of the total collection, respectively. About one-third of the total snail population (33%) shed cercariae. The cercariae species recorded were Xiphidiocercaria, Brevifurcate apharyngeate distome (BAD), Echinostome, and Fasciola. Snail species were found in high abundance in aquatic habitats located in the agricultural landscape. Therefore, land-use planning and protection of aquatic habitats from uncontrolled human activities and pollution can be considered as important strategies to prevent and control the spread of snail-borne diseases in the region.

Co-creation and priority setting for applied and implementation research in One Health: Improving capacities in public and animal health systems in Kenya.

Background: The Kenyan government has successfully been implementing sector specific and multisectoral projects aligned to the Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA). For operational readiness and to enhance the effective planning and implementation of Global Health Security Programs (GHSP) at national and subnational level, there is an urgent need for stakeholders' engagement process to seek input in identifying challenges, prioritise activities for field implementation, and identify applied research and development questions, that should be addressed in the next five years. Methods: The modified Child Health and Nutrition Research Initiative (CHNRI) method was used to identify global health security related priorities for multisectoral implementation in Kenya. Subject matter experts from human, animal and environmental health sectors at national and subnational level contributed to predefined research questions from a number of sources and activities for consideration for implementation using a One Health approach. Sixty-two experts scored the 193 questions based on five pre-defined criteria: 1) feasibility and answerability; 2) potential for burden reduction; 3) potential for a paradigm shift; 4) potential for translation and implementation; and 5) impact on equity. Data resulting from this process was then analysed in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to determine the research priorities and experts' agreements. Results: Among the priority activities identified for implementation research were; strengthening One Health governance and legal frameworks; integration of ecosystem health into One Health programming; strengthening disease reporting, integrated data collection, information sharing and joint outbreak response; socio-anthropological and gender-based approaches in improving risk and behavioural change communication and community engagement; and one health workforce development. In addition, the potentials to invest in collaborative predictive risk modelling to enhance epidemic intelligence systems, while strengthening the One Health approach in the food safety incident and emergency response plans are feasible. Interpretation: Successful multisectoral implementation of global health security program in Kenya calls for a whole of society approach that will harness community and private sector knowledge to build preparedness and response capacities while targeting neglected and marginalised populations. This research provides a framework that is worth emulating for cost-effective planning and implementation of overarching One Health programs.

Assessing the impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPI) on the dynamics of COVID-19: A mathematical modelling study of the case of Ethiopia.

The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic on March 11, 2020 and by November 14, 2020 there were 53.3M confirmed cases and 1.3M reported deaths in the world. In the same period, Ethiopia reported 102K cases and 1.5K deaths. Effective public health preparedness and response to COVID-19 requires timely projections of the time and size of the peak of the outbreak. Currently, Ethiopia under the COVAX facility has begun vaccinating high risk populations but due to vaccine supply shortages and the absence of an effective treatment, the implementation of NPIs (non-pharmaceutical interventions), like hand washing, wearing face coverings or social distancing, still remain the most effective methods of controlling the pandemic as recommended by WHO. This study proposes a modified Susceptible Exposed Infected and Recovered (SEIR) model to predict the number of COVID-19 cases at different stages of the disease under the implementation of NPIs at different adherence levels in both urban and rural settings of Ethiopia. To estimate the number of cases and their peak time, 30 different scenarios were simulated. The results indicated that the peak time of the pandemic is different in urban and rural populations of Ethiopia. In the urban population, under moderate implementation of three NPIs the pandemic will be expected to reach its peak in December, 2020 with 147,972 cases, of which 18,100 are symptomatic and 957 will require admission to an Intensive Care Unit (ICU). Among the implemented NPIs, increasing the coverage of wearing masks by 10% could reduce the number of new cases on average by one-fifth in urban-populations. Varying the coverage of wearing masks in rural populations minimally reduces the number of cases. In conclusion, the models indicate that the projected number of hospital cases during the peak time is higher than the Ethiopian health system capacity. To contain symptomatic and ICU cases within the health system capacity, the government should pay attention to the strict implementation of the existing NPIs or impose additional public health measures.

One hundred years of zoonoses research in the Horn of Africa: A scoping review.

BACKGROUND: One Health is particularly relevant to the Horn of Africa where many people's livelihoods are highly dependent on livestock and their shared environment. In this context, zoonoses may have a dramatic impact on both human and animal health, but also on country economies. This scoping review aimed to characterise and evaluate the nature of zoonotic disease research in the Horn region. Specifically, it addressed the following questions: (i) what specific zoonotic diseases have been prioritised for research, (ii) what data have been reported (human, animal or environment), (iii) what methods have been applied, and (iv) who has been doing the research? METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We used keyword combinations to search online databases for peer-reviewed papers and theses. Screening and data extraction (disease, country, domain and method) was performed using DistillerSR. A total of 2055 studies focusing on seven countries and over 60 zoonoses were included. Brucellosis attracted the highest attention in terms of research while anthrax, Q fever and leptospirosis have been comparatively under-studied. Research efforts did not always align with zoonoses priorities identified at national levels. Despite zoonoses being a clear target for 'One Health' research, a very limited proportion of studies report data on the three domains of human, animal and environment. Descriptive and observational epidemiological studies were dominant and only a low proportion of publications were multidisciplinary. Finally, we found that a minority of international collaborations were between Global South countries with a high proportion of authors having affiliations from outside the Horn of Africa. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: There is a growing interest in zoonoses research in the Horn of Africa. Recommendations arising from this scoping review include: (i) ensuring zoonoses research aligns with national and global research agendas; (ii) encouraging researchers to adopt a holistic, transdisciplinary One Health approach following high quality reporting standards (COHERE, PRISMA, etc.); and (iii) empowering local researchers supported by regional and international partnerships to engage in zoonoses research.

Screening of some Kenyan medicinal plants for antibacterial activity.

Eleven medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Machakos and Kitui District were screened, namely: Ajuga remota Benth, Aloe secundiflora Engl, Amaranthus hybridus L, Cassia didymobotrya Fes, Croton macrostachyus Del, Entada leptostachya Harms, Erythrina abyssinica DC, Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv, Schkuhria pinnata O. Ktze, Terminalia kilimandscharica Engl and Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst for potential antibacterial activity against four medically important bacterial strains, namely: Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Micrococcus lutea ATCC 9341 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. The antibacterial activity of methanol extracts was determined as the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The plant extracts were more active against Gram-positive (G+) than Gram-negative (G-) bacteria. The positive controls were streptomycin and benzylpenicillin for G- and G+ bacteria, respectively, both had a significant MIC at <1 mg/mL. The most susceptible bacteria were B. cereus, followed by M. lutea, while the most resistant bacteria were Ps. aeruginosa, followed by E. coli. The present study supports the use of these plants by the herbalists in the management of bacterial ailments. H. abyssinica and T. kilimandscharica showed the best antibacterial activity; hence these plants can be further subjected to phytochemical and pharmacological evaluation.

Why is There Low Morbidity and Mortality of COVID-19 in Africa?

Three months since the detection of the first COVID-19 case in Africa, almost all countries of the continent continued to report lower morbidity and mortality than the global trend, including Europe and North America. We reviewed the merits of various hypotheses advanced to explain this phenomenon, including low seeding rate, effective mitigation measures, population that is more youthful, favorable weather, and possible prior exposure to a cross-reactive virus. Having a youthful population and favorable weather appears compelling, particularly their combined effect; however, progression of the pandemic in the region and globally may dispel these in the coming months.

A hundred years of rabies in Kenya and the strategy for eliminating dog-mediated rabies by 2030 [version 2; peer review: 4 approved].

BACKGROUND: Rabies causes an estimated 59,000 human deaths annually. In Kenya, rabies was first reported in a dog in 1912, with the first human case reported in 1928. Here we examine retrospective rabies data in Kenya for the period 1912 - 2017 and describe the spatial and temporal patterns of rabies occurrence in the country. Additionally, we detail Kenya's strategy for the elimination of dog-mediated human rabies by 2030. METHODS: Data on submitted samples and confirmed cases in humans, domestic animals and wildlife were obtained from Kenya's Directorate of Veterinary Services. These data were associated with the geographical regions where the samples originated, and temporal and spatial trends examined. RESULTS: Between 1912 and the mid 1970's, rabies spread across Kenya gradually, with fewer than 50 cases reported per year and less than half of the 47 counties affected. Following an outbreak in the mid 1970's, rabies spread rapidly to more than 85% of counties, with a 4 fold increase in the percent positivity of samples submitted and number of confirmed rabies cases. Since 1958, 7,584 samples from domestic animals (93%), wildlife (5%), and humans (2%) were tested. Over two-thirds of all rabies cases came from six counties, all in close proximity to veterinary diagnostic laboratories, highlighting a limitation of passive surveillance. CONCLUSIONS: Compulsory annual dog vaccinations between 1950's and the early 1970's slowed rabies spread. The rapid spread with peak rabies cases in the 1980's coincided with implementation of structural adjustment programs privatizing the veterinary sector leading to breakdown of rabies control programs. To eliminate human deaths from rabies by 2030, Kenya is implementing a 15-year step-wise strategy based on three pillars: a) mass dog vaccination, b) provision of post-exposure prophylaxis and public awareness and c) improved surveillance for rabies in dogs and humans with prompt responses to rabies outbreaks.

Antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of Kenyan medicinal plants.

Seven medicinal plant extracts traditionally used in Kenya, mainly for management of infectious conditions, were chosen and screened for their antibacterial activity against Gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive (Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria. Antibacterial activity was tested using the broth dilution method. Harrisonia abyssinica and Terminalia kilimandscharica extracts showed significant activity against Gram+ and Gram- bacteria. The methanolic extracts of T. kilimandscharica bark and H. abyssinica bark and leaves showed minimum inhibitory activity against all tested bacteria, with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 25-150 mg/mL. Ajuga remota and Amaranthus hybridus, which are lethal to brine shrimp nauplii, showed significantly lower antibacterial activity than those that were relatively non-toxic.

Sensitivity of vegetation to climate variability and its implications for malaria risk in Baringo, Kenya.

The global increase in vector borne diseases has been linked to climate change. Seasonal vegetation changes are known to influence disease vector population. However, the relationship is more theoretical than quantitatively defined. There is a growing demand for understanding and prediction of climate sensitive vector borne disease risks especially in regions where meteorological data are lacking. This study aimed at analyzing and quantitatively assessing the seasonal and year-to-year association between climatic factors (rainfall and temperature) and vegetation cover, and its implications for malaria risks in Baringo County, Kenya. Remotely sensed temperature, rainfall, and vegetation data for the period 2004-2015 were used. Poisson regression was used to model the association between malaria cases and climatic and environmental factors for the period 2009-2012, this being the period for which all datasets overlapped. A strong positive relationship was observed between the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and monthly total precipitation. There was a strong negative relationship between NDVI and minimum temperature. The total monthly rainfall (between 94 -181mm), average monthly minimum temperatures (between 16-21°C) and mean monthly NDVI values lower than 0.35 were significantly associated with malaria incidence rates. Results suggests that a combination of climatic and vegetation greenness thresholds need to be met for malaria incidence to be significantly increased in the county. Planning for malaria control can therefore be enhanced by incorporating these factors in malaria risk mapping.

Seroepidemiological Survey of Rift Valley Fever Virus in Ruminants in Garissa, Kenya.

INTRODUCTION: Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a vector-borne zoonotic disease caused by phlebovirus in the family Bunyaviridae. In Kenya, major outbreaks occurred in 1997-1998 and 2006-2007 leading to human deaths, huge economic losses because of livestock morbidity, mortality, and restrictions on livestock trade. AIM: This study was conducted to determine RVF seroprevalence in cattle, sheep, and goats during an interepidemic period in Garissa County in Kenya. METHODS: In July 2013, we performed a cross-sectional survey and sampled 370 ruminants from eight RVF-prone areas of Garissa County. Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) antibodies were detected using a multispecies competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Mixed effect logistic regression models were used to determine the association between RVF seropositivity and species, sex, age, and location of the animals. RESULTS: A total of 271 goats, 87 sheep, and 12 cattle were sampled and the overall immunoglobulin G seroprevalence was 27.6% (95% CI [23-32.1]). Sheep, cattle, and goats had seroprevalences of 32.2% (95% CI [20.6-31]), 33.3% (95% CI [6.7-60]), and 25.8% (95% CI [22.4-42]), respectively. Seropositivity in males was 31.8% (95% CI [22.2-31.8]), whereas that of females was 27% (95% CI [18.1-45.6]). CONCLUSIONS: The high seroprevalence suggests RVFV circulation in domestic ruminants in Garissa and may be indicative of a subclinal infection. These findings provide evidence of RVF disease status that will assist decision-makers to flag areas of high risk of RVF outbreaks and prioritize the implementation of timely and cost-effective vaccination programs.

Ecological niche modelling of Rift Valley fever virus vectors in Baringo, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a vector-borne zoonotic disease that has an impact on human health and animal productivity. Here, we explore the use of vector presence modelling to predict the distribution of RVF vector species under climate change scenario to demonstrate the potential for geographic spread of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of climate change on RVF vector distribution in Baringo County, Kenya, with an aim of developing a risk map for spatial prediction of RVF outbreaks. METHODOLOGY: The study used data on vector presence and ecological niche modelling (MaxEnt) algorithm to predict the effect of climatic change on habitat suitability and the spatial distribution of RVF vectors in Baringo County. Data on species occurrence were obtained from longitudinal sampling of adult mosquitoes and larvae in the study area. We used present (2000) and future (2050) Bioclim climate databases to model the vector distribution. RESULTS: Model results predicted potential suitable areas with high success rates for Culex quinquefasciatus, Culex univitattus, Mansonia africana, and Mansonia uniformis. Under the present climatic conditions, the lowlands were found to be highly suitable for all the species. Future climatic conditions indicate an increase in the spatial distribution of Cx. quinquefasciatus and M. africana. Model performance was statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Soil types, precipitation in the driest quarter, precipitation seasonality, and isothermality showed the highest predictive potential for the four species.

Prioritization of Zoonotic Diseases in Kenya, 2015.

INTRODUCTION: Zoonotic diseases have varying public health burden and socio-economic impact across time and geographical settings making their prioritization for prevention and control important at the national level. We conducted systematic prioritization of zoonotic diseases and developed a ranked list of these diseases that would guide allocation of resources to enhance their surveillance, prevention, and control. METHODS: A group of 36 medical, veterinary, and wildlife experts in zoonoses from government, research institutions and universities in Kenya prioritized 36 diseases using a semi-quantitative One Health Zoonotic Disease Prioritization tool developed by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention with slight adaptations. The tool comprises five steps: listing of zoonotic diseases to be prioritized, development of ranking criteria, weighting criteria by pairwise comparison through analytical hierarchical process, scoring each zoonotic disease based on the criteria, and aggregation of scores. RESULTS: In order of importance, the participants identified severity of illness in humans, epidemic/pandemic potential in humans, socio-economic burden, prevalence/incidence and availability of interventions (weighted scores assigned to each criteria were 0.23, 0.22, 0.21, 0.17 and 0.17 respectively), as the criteria to define the relative importance of the diseases. The top five priority diseases in descending order of ranking were anthrax, trypanosomiasis, rabies, brucellosis and Rift Valley fever. CONCLUSION: Although less prominently mentioned, neglected zoonotic diseases ranked highly compared to those with epidemic potential suggesting these endemic diseases cause substantial public health burden. The list of priority zoonotic disease is crucial for the targeted allocation of resources and informing disease prevention and control programs for zoonoses in Kenya.

A systematic review of Rift Valley Fever epidemiology 1931-2014.

BACKGROUND: Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a mosquito-borne viral zoonosis that was first isolated and characterized in 1931 in Kenya. RVF outbreaks have resulted in significant losses through human illness and deaths, high livestock abortions and deaths. This report provides an overview on epidemiology of RVF including ecology, molecular diversity spatiotemporal analysis, and predictive risk modeling. METHODOLOGY: Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we systematically searched for relevant RVF publications in repositories of the World Health Organization Library and Information Networks for Knowledge (WHOLIS), U.S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). Detailed searches were performed in Google Scholar, SpringerLink, and PubMed databases and included conference proceedings and books published from 1931 up to 31st January 2015. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: A total of 84 studies were included in this review; majority (50%) reported on common human and animal risk factors that included consumption of animal products, contact with infected animals and residing in low altitude areas associated with favorable climatic and ecological conditions for vector emergence. A total of 14 (16%) of the publications described RVF progressive spatial and temporal distribution and the use of risk modeling for timely prediction of imminent outbreaks. Using distribution maps, we illustrated the gradual spread and geographical extent of disease; we also estimated the disease burden using aggregate human mortalities and cumulative outbreak periods for endemic regions. CONCLUSION: This review outlines common risk factors for RVF infections over wider geographical areas; it also emphasizes the role of spatial models in predicting RVF enzootics. It, therefore, explains RVF epidemiological status that may be used for design of targeted surveillance and control programs in endemic countries.

Bovine tuberculosis in Rwanda: Prevalence and economic impact evaluation by meat inspection at Société des Abattoirs de Nyabugogo-Nyabugogo Abattoir, Kigali.

Despite the significant public health burden of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in Rwanda, the prevalence of bTB is poorly documented. This study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of bTB in cattle using gross examination of granulomatous lesions, to identify mycobacteria species in suspected samples, and to evaluate the economic impact of meat condemnation based on bTB-like lesions in the meat industry in Rwanda. Routine meat inspection was conducted at Société des Abattoirs de Nyabugogo (SABAN)-Nyabugogo Abattoir. Tissue samples including 31 lymph nodes, 3 lungs and 2 livers were obtained from cattle of different ages with gross tuberculous lesions. Mycobacterium bovis was identified using microscopy with Kinyoun staining and isolation of mycobacterial species in culture on Löwenstein-Jensen and Colestos media, further identified using biochemical tests. Our findings, based on culture and postmortem results, show that the prevalence of bTB is 0.5%(0.587*148/16753), with an overall gross tuberculous lesion prevalence of 0.9% (148/16753). The presence of lesions were higher in cattle aged 2 years and older (1.6% vs. 0.6%, p < 0.05) and higher in females than in males (1.4% vs. 0.6%, p < 0.05). Of the 36 samples tested, 26 (72.2%) were positive by microscopic examination with Kinyoun staining while M. bovis was culture-confirmed in 21 (58.7%) cases. Bovine tuberculosis caused condemnation of 1683.5 kg of meat, resulting in an estimated loss of $4810. Our findings indicate that the prevalence of bTB in Rwanda is significant, and that bTB is a major cause of meat condemnation requiring continued implementation of surveillance and control measures. Furthermore, the results from this study also show important variations in sensitivity of the different tests that were used to determine the prevalence of bTB in cattle in Rwanda.

A survey of bovine cysticercosis/human taeniosis in Northern Turkana District, Kenya.

Bovine cysticercosis is a zoonosis that is mainly of socioeconomic and public health importance. A survey of this disease was carried out in Northern Turkana District, Kenya to estimate the prevalence through both serology and meat inspection, to determine the prevalence of the adult tapeworm in the human definitive host, and to determine risk factors for cattle seropositivity. This information is of public health importance and will be of use in assessing economic losses due to downgrading, refrigeration or condemnation of infested carcasses. The study area was stratified into the three livestock grazing regions of Oropoi to the south, Lokichoggio-Mogilla centrally and Kibish in the north for the purposes of the serological and questionnaire (n = 53 herd owners) data. Five adakaars (grazing units) were selected and 34, 63, 49, 75 and 571 cattle serum samples obtained from these. The slaughter slabs of Lokichoggio and Kakuma were visited and 188 serum samples were obtained from slaughter cattle and compared to results of meat inspection. Human stool samples were collected in each of the three grazing areas and 66, 97 and 78 samples were obtained. The seroprevalence of cysticercosis in cattle was estimated at 16.7% (95% CI 13-20.9%) using a secretory-excretory antigen detection ELISA. There was poor agreement between meat inspection and serology (k = 0.025; p = 0.2797). The prevalence of taeniosis was estimated as 2.5% (95% CI 0.8-5.6%) by microscopy. A backwards elimination logistic regression analysis indicated that the grazing unit (Adakaar), the deworming history of household members and the distance (>2 km) of grazing fields from the homestead were significant explanatory variables for cattle being found to be positive on serology. An intra-cluster correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.07 (0.02-0.12); p < 0.0001 was calculated for bovine cysticercosis in this area.

Ethnopharmacological survey of Samburu district, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Ethnobotanical pharmacopoeia is confidently used in disease intervention and there is need for documentation and preservation of traditional medical knowledge to bolster the discovery of novel drugs. The objective of the present study was to document the indigenous medicinal plant utilization, management and their extinction threats in Samburu District, Kenya. METHODS: Field research was conducted in six divisions of Samburu District in Kenya. We randomly sampled 100 consented interviewees stratified by age, gender, occupation and level of education. We collected plant use data through semi-structured questionnaires; transect walks, oral interviews and focus groups discussions. Voucher specimens of all cited botanic species were collected and deposited at University of Nairobi's botany herbarium. RESULTS: Data on plant use from the informants yielded 990 citations on 56 medicinal plant species, which are used to treat 54 different animal and human diseases including; malaria, digestive disorders, respiratory syndromes and ectoparasites. CONCLUSION: The ethnomedicinal use of plant species was documented in the study area for treatment of both human and veterinary diseases. The local population has high ethnobotanical knowledge and has adopted sound management conservation practices. The major threatening factors reported were anthropogenic and natural. Ethnomedical documentation and sustainable plant utilization can support drug discovery efforts in developing countries.

Antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of Kenyan medicinal plants

Seven medicinal plant extracts traditionally used in Kenya, mainly for management of infectious conditions, were chosen and screened for their antibacterial activity against Gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive (Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria. Antibacterial activity was tested using the broth dilution method. Harrisonia abyssinica and Terminalia kilimandscharica extracts showed significant activity against Gram+ and Gram- bacteria. The methanolic extracts of T. kilimandscharica bark and H. abyssinica bark and leaves showed minimum inhibitory activity against all tested bacteria, with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 25-150 mg/mL. Ajuga remota and Amaranthus hybridus, which are lethal to brine shrimp nauplii, showed significantly lower antibacterial activity than those that were relatively non-toxic.