Targeting myeloid chemotaxis to reverse prostate cancer therapy resistance.

Inflammation is a hallmark of cancer1. In patients with cancer, peripheral blood myeloid expansion, indicated by a high neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, associates with shorter survival and treatment resistance across malignancies and therapeutic modalities2-5. Whether myeloid inflammation drives progression of prostate cancer in humans remain unclear. Here we show that inhibition of myeloid chemotaxis can reduce tumour-elicited myeloid inflammation and reverse therapy resistance in a subset of patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). We show that a higher blood neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio reflects tumour myeloid infiltration and tumour expression of senescence-associated mRNA species, including those that encode myeloid-chemoattracting CXCR2 ligands. To determine whether myeloid cells fuel resistance to androgen receptor signalling inhibitors, and whether inhibiting CXCR2 to block myeloid chemotaxis reverses this, we conducted an investigator-initiated, proof-of-concept clinical trial of a CXCR2 inhibitor (AZD5069) plus enzalutamide in patients with metastatic CRPC that is resistant to androgen receptor signalling inhibitors. This combination was well tolerated without dose-limiting toxicity and it decreased circulating neutrophil levels, reduced intratumour CD11b+HLA-DRloCD15+CD14- myeloid cell infiltration and imparted durable clinical benefit with biochemical and radiological responses in a subset of patients with metastatic CRPC. This study provides clinical evidence that senescence-associated myeloid inflammation can fuel metastatic CRPC progression and resistance to androgen receptor blockade. Targeting myeloid chemotaxis merits broader evaluation in other cancers.

IL-23 secreted by myeloid cells drives castration-resistant prostate cancer.

Patients with prostate cancer frequently show resistance to androgen-deprivation therapy, a condition known as castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Acquiring a better understanding of the mechanisms that control the development of CRPC remains an unmet clinical need. The well-established dependency of cancer cells on the tumour microenvironment indicates that the microenvironment might control the emergence of CRPC. Here we identify IL-23 produced by myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) as a driver of CRPC in mice and patients with CRPC. Mechanistically, IL-23 secreted by MDSCs can activate the androgen receptor pathway in prostate tumour cells, promoting cell survival and proliferation in androgen-deprived conditions. Intra-tumour MDSC infiltration and IL-23 concentration are increased in blood and tumour samples from patients with CRPC. Antibody-mediated inactivation of IL-23 restored sensitivity to androgen-deprivation therapy in mice. Taken together, these results reveal that MDSCs promote CRPC by acting in a non-cell autonomous manner. Treatments that block IL-23 can oppose MDSC-mediated resistance to castration in prostate cancer and synergize with standard therapies.

Development and Validation of a New BAG-1L-Specific Antibody to Quantify BAG-1L Protein Expression in Advanced Prostate Cancer.

BCL-2-associated athanogene-1L (BAG-1L) is a critical co-regulator that binds to and enhances the transactivation function of the androgen receptor, leading to prostate cancer development and progression. Studies investigating the clinical importance of BAG-1L protein expression in advanced prostate cancer have been limited by the paucity of antibodies that specifically recognize the long isoform. In this study, we developed and validated a new BAG-1L-specific antibody using multiple orthogonal methods across several cell lines with and without genomic manipulation of BAG-1L and all BAG-1 isoforms. Following this, we performed exploratory immunohistochemistry to determine BAG-1L protein expression in normal human, matched castration-sensitive prostate cancer (CSPC) and castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), unmatched primary and metastatic CRPC, and early breast cancer tissues. We demonstrated higher BAG-1L protein expression in CRPC metastases than in unmatched, untreated, castration-sensitive prostatectomies from men who remained recurrence-free for 5 years. In contrast, BAG-1L protein expression did not change between matched, same patient, CSPC and CRPC biopsies, suggesting that BAG-1L protein expression may be associated with more aggressive biology and the development of castration resistance. Finally, in a cohort of patients who universally developed CRPC, there was no association between BAG-1L protein expression at diagnosis and time to CRPC or overall survival, and no association between BAG-1L protein expression at CRPC biopsy and clinical outcome from androgen receptor targeting therapies or docetaxel chemotherapy. The limitations of this study include the requirement to validate the reproducibility of the assay developed, the potential influence of pre-analytical factors, timing of CRPC biopsies, relatively small patient numbers, and heterogenous therapies on BAG-1L protein expression, and the clinical outcome analyses performed. We describe a new BAG-1L-specific antibody that the research community can further develop to elucidate the biological and clinical significance of BAG-1L protein expression in malignant and nonmalignant diseases.

Superporous Poly(ethylene glycol) Diacrylate Cryogel with a Defined Elastic Modulus for Prostate Cancer Cell Research.

The physical and mechanical properties of the tumor microenvironment are crucial for the growth, differentiation and migration of cancer cells. However, such microenvironment is not found in the geometric constraints of 2D cell culture systems used in many cancer studies. Prostate cancer research, in particular, suffers from the lack of suitable in vitro models. Here a 3D superporous scaffold is described with thick pore walls in a mechanically stable and robust architecture to support prostate tumor growth. This scaffold is generated from the cryogelation of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate to produce a defined elastic modulus for prostate tumor growth. Lymph node carcinoma of the prostate (LNCaP) cells show a linear growth over 21 d as multicellular tumor spheroids in such a scaffold with points of attachments to the walls of the scaffold. These LNCaP cells respond to the growth promoting effects of androgens and demonstrate a characteristic cytoplasmic-nuclear translocation of the androgen receptor and androgen-dependent gene expression. Compared to 2D cell culture, the expression or androgen response of prostate cancer specific genes is greatly enhanced in the LNCaP cells in this system. This scaffold is therefore a powerful tool for prostate cancer studies with unique advantages over 2D cell culture systems.

Coregulator control of androgen receptor action by a novel nuclear receptor-binding motif.

The androgen receptor (AR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that is essential for prostate cancer development. It is activated by androgens through its ligand-binding domain (LBD), which consists predominantly of 11 α-helices. Upon ligand binding, the last helix is reorganized to an agonist conformation termed activator function-2 (AF-2) for coactivator binding. Several coactivators bind to the AF-2 pocket through conserved LXXLL or FXXLF sequences to enhance the activity of the receptor. Recently, a small compound-binding surface adjacent to AF-2 has been identified as an allosteric modulator of the AF-2 activity and is termed binding function-3 (BF-3). However, the role of BF-3 in vivo is currently unknown, and little is understood about what proteins can bind to it. Here we demonstrate that a duplicated GARRPR motif at the N terminus of the cochaperone Bag-1L functions through the BF-3 pocket. These findings are supported by the fact that a selective BF-3 inhibitor or mutations within the BF-3 pocket abolish the interaction between the GARRPR motif(s) and the BF-3. Conversely, amino acid exchanges in the two GARRPR motifs of Bag-1L can impair the interaction between Bag-1L and AR without altering the ability of Bag-1L to bind to chromatin. Furthermore, the mutant Bag-1L increases androgen-dependent activation of a subset of AR targets in a genome-wide transcriptome analysis, demonstrating a repressive function of the GARRPR/BF-3 interaction. We have therefore identified GARRPR as a novel BF-3 regulatory sequence important for fine-tuning the activity of the AR.

RNASEH2B loss and PARP inhibition in advanced prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Clinical trials have suggested antitumor activity from PARP inhibition beyond homologous recombination deficiency (HRD). RNASEH2B loss is unrelated to HRD and preclinically sensitizes to PARP inhibition. The current study reports on RNASEH2B protein loss in advanced prostate cancer and its association with RB1 protein loss, clinical outcome and clonal dynamics during treatment with PARP inhibition in a prospective clinical trial. METHODS: Whole tumor biopsies from multiple cohorts of patients with advanced prostate cancer were interrogated using whole-exome sequencing (WES), RNA sequencing (bulk and single nucleus) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) for RNASEH2B and RB1. Biopsies from patients treated with olaparib in the TOPARP-A and TOPARP-B clinical trials were used to evaluate RNASEH2B clonal selection during olaparib treatment. RESULTS: Shallow co-deletion of RNASEH2B and adjacent RB1, co-located at chromosome 13q14, was common, deep co-deletion infrequent, and gene loss associated with lower mRNA expression. In castration-resistant PC (CRPC) biopsies, RNASEH2B and RB1 mRNA expression correlated, but single nucleus RNA sequencing indicated discordant loss of expression. IHC studies showed that loss of the two proteins often occurred independently, arguably due to stochastic second allele loss. Pre- and post-treatment metastatic CRPC (mCRPC) biopsy studies from BRCA1/2 wildtype tumors, treated on the TOPARP phase II trial, indicated that olaparib eradicates RNASEH2B-loss tumor subclones. CONCLUSION: PARP inhibition may benefit men suffering from mCRPC by eradicating tumor subclones with RNASEH2B loss. CLINICALTRIALS: gov NCT01682772FUNDING. AstraZeneca; Cancer Research UK; Medical Research Council; Cancer Research UK; Prostate Cancer UK; Movember Foundation; Prostate Cancer Foundation.

Thio-2 Inhibits Key Signaling Pathways Required for the Development and Progression of Castration-resistant Prostate Cancer.

Therapies that abrogate persistent androgen receptor (AR) signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remain an unmet clinical need. The N-terminal domain of the AR that drives transcriptional activity in CRPC remains a challenging therapeutic target. Herein we demonstrate that BCL-2-associated athanogene-1 (BAG-1) mRNA is highly expressed and associates with signaling pathways, including AR signaling, that are implicated in the development and progression of CRPC. In addition, interrogation of geometric and physiochemical properties of the BAG domain of BAG-1 isoforms identifies it to be a tractable but challenging drug target. Furthermore, through BAG-1 isoform mouse knockout studies, we confirm that BAG-1 isoforms regulate hormone physiology and that therapies targeting the BAG domain will be associated with limited "on-target" toxicity. Importantly, the postulated inhibitor of BAG-1 isoforms, Thio-2, suppressed AR signaling and other important pathways implicated in the development and progression of CRPC to reduce the growth of treatment-resistant prostate cancer cell lines and patient-derived models. However, the mechanism by which Thio-2 elicits the observed phenotype needs further elucidation as the genomic abrogation of BAG-1 isoforms was unable to recapitulate the Thio-2-mediated phenotype. Overall, these data support the interrogation of related compounds with improved drug-like properties as a novel therapeutic approach in CRPC, and further highlight the clinical potential of treatments that block persistent AR signaling which are currently undergoing clinical evaluation in CRPC.

Critical role of antioxidant programs in enzalutamide-resistant prostate cancer.

Therapy resistance to second-generation androgen receptor (AR) antagonists, such as enzalutamide, is common in patients with advanced prostate cancer (PCa). To understand the metabolic alterations involved in enzalutamide resistance, we performed metabolomic, transcriptomic, and cistromic analyses of enzalutamide-sensitive and -resistant PCa cells, xenografts, patient-derived organoids, patient-derived explants, and tumors. We noted dramatically higher basal and inducible levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in enzalutamide-resistant PCa and castration-resistant PCa (CRPC), in comparison to enzalutamide-sensitive PCa cells or primary therapy-naive tumors respectively. Unbiased metabolomic evaluation identified that glutamine metabolism was consistently upregulated in enzalutamide-resistant PCa cells and CRPC tumors. Stable isotope tracing studies suggest that this enhanced glutamine metabolism drives an antioxidant program that allows these cells to tolerate higher basal levels of ROS. Inhibition of glutamine metabolism with either a small-molecule glutaminase inhibitor or genetic knockout of glutaminase enhanced ROS levels, and blocked the growth of enzalutamide-resistant PCa. The critical role of compensatory antioxidant pathways in maintaining enzalutamide-resistant PCa cells was validated by targeting another antioxidant program driver, ferredoxin 1. Taken together, our data identify a metabolic need to maintain antioxidant programs and a potentially targetable metabolic vulnerability in enzalutamide-resistant PCa.

Germline ATM Mutations Detected by Somatic DNA Sequencing in Lethal Prostate Cancer.

Background: Germline mutations in the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) gene occur in 0.5-1% of the overall population and are associated with tumour predisposition. The clinical and pathological features of ATM-mutated prostate cancer (PC) are poorly defined but have been associated with lethal PC. Objective: To report on the clinical characteristics including family history and clinical outcomes of a cohort of patients with advanced metastatic castration-resistant PC (CRPC) who were found to have germline ATM mutations after mutation detection by initial tumour DNA sequencing. Design setting and participants: We acquired germline ATM mutation data by saliva next-generation sequencing from patients with ATM mutations in PC biopsies sequenced between January 2014 and January 2022. Demographics, family history, and clinical data were collected retrospectively. Outcome measurements and statistical analysis: Outcome endpoints were based on overall survival (OS) and time from diagnosis to CRPC. Data were analysed using R version 3.6.2 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). Results and limitations: Overall, seven patients (n = 7/1217; 0.6%) had germline ATM mutations detected, with five of them having a family history of malignancies, including breast, prostate, pancreas, and gastric cancer; leukaemia; and lymphoma. Two patients had concomitant somatic mutations in tumour biopsies in genes other than ATM, while two patients were found to carry more than one ATM pathogenic mutation. Five tumours in germline ATM variant carriers had loss of ATM by immunohistochemistry. The median OS from diagnosis was 7.1 yr (range 2.9-14 yr) and the median OS from CRPC was 5.3 yr (range 2.2-7.3 yr). When comparing these data with PC patients sequenced by The Cancer Genome Atlas, we found that the spatial localisation of mutations was similar, with distribution of alterations occurring on similar positions in the ATM gene. Interestingly, these include a mutation within the FRAP-ATM-TRRAP (FAT) domain, suggesting that this represents a mutational hotspot for ATM. Conclusions: Germline ATM mutations are rare in patients with lethal PC but occur at mutational hotspots; further research is warranted to better characterise the family histories of these men and PC clinical course. Patient summary: In this report, we studied the clinical and pathological features of advanced prostate cancers associated with germline mutations in the ATM gene. We found that most patients had a strong family history of cancer and that this mutation might predict the course of these prostate cancers, as well as response to specific treatments.

Identification of an Imidazopyridine-based Compound as an Oral Selective Estrogen Receptor Degrader for Breast Cancer Therapy.

The pro-oncogenic activities of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) drive breast cancer pathogenesis. Endocrine therapies that impair the production of estrogen or the action of the ERα are therefore used to prevent primary disease metastasis. Although recent successes with ERα degraders have been reported, there is still the need to develop further ERα antagonists with additional properties for breast cancer therapy. We have previously described a benzothiazole compound A4B17 that inhibits the proliferation of androgen receptor-positive prostate cancer cells by disrupting the interaction of the cochaperone BAG1 with the AR. A4B17 was also found to inhibit the proliferation of estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer cells. Using a scaffold hopping approach, we report here a group of small molecules with imidazopyridine scaffolds that are more potent and efficacious than A4B17. The prototype molecule X15695 efficiently degraded ERα and attenuated estrogen-mediated target gene expression as well as transactivation by the AR. X15695 also disrupted key cellular protein-protein interactions such as BAG1-mortalin (GRP75) interaction as well as wild-type p53-mortalin or mutant p53-BAG2 interactions. These activities together reactivated p53 and resulted in cell-cycle block and the induction of apoptosis. When administered orally to in vivo tumor xenograft models, X15695 potently inhibited the growth of breast tumor cells but less efficiently the growth of prostate tumor cells. We therefore identify X15695 as an oral selective ER degrader and propose further development of this compound for therapy of ER+ breast cancers. Significance: An imidazopyridine that selectively degrades ERα and is orally bioavailable has been identified for the development of ER+ breast cancer therapeutics. This compound also activates wild-type p53 and disrupts the gain-of-function tumorigenic activity of mutant p53, resulting in cell-cycle arrest and the induction of apoptosis.

B7-H3 as a Therapeutic Target in Advanced Prostate Cancer.

BACKGROUND: B7-H3 is a cell surface immunomodulatory glycoprotein overexpressed in prostate cancers (PCs). Understanding its longitudinal expression at emergence of castration resistance and association with tumour genomics are critical to the development of and patient selection for B7-H3 targeted therapies. OBJECTIVE: To characterise B7-H3 expression in same-patient hormone-sensitive (HSPC) and castration-resistant (CRPC) PC biopsies, associating this with PC genomics, and to evaluate the antitumour activity of an anti-B7-H3 antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) in human CRPC in vitro and in vivo. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: We performed immunohistochemistry and next-generation sequencing on a cohort of 98 clinically annotated CRPC biopsies, including 72 patients who also had HSPC biopsies for analyses. We analysed two CRPC transcriptome and exome datasets, and PC scRNASeq datasets. PC organoids (patient-derived xenograft [PDX]-derived organoids [PDX-Os]) were derived from PDXs generated from human CRPC biopsies. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: We evaluated B7-H3 mRNA expression in relation to a panel of 770 immune-related genes, compared B7-H3 protein expression between same-patient HSPC and CRPC biopsies, determined associations with PC genomic alterations, and evaluated the antitumour activity of DS-7300a, a topoisomerase-1 inhibitor payload anti-B7-H3 ADC, in human PC cell lines, organoids (PDX-Os), and xenografts (PDXs) of different histologies, B7-H3 expressions, and genomics. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: B7-H3 was among the most highly expressed immunomodulatory genes in CRPCs. Most CRPCs (93%) expressed B7-H3, and in patients who developed CRPC, B7-H3 expression was frequently expressed at the time of HSPC diagnosis (97%). Conversion from B7-H3 positive to negative, or vice versa, during progression from HSPC to CRPC was uncommon. CRPC with neuroendocrine features were more likely to be B7-H3 negative (28%) than adenocarcinomas. B7-H3 is overexpressed in tumours with defective DNA repair gene (ATM and BRCA2) alterations and is associated with ERG expression, androgen receptor (AR) expression, and AR activity signature. DS7300a had antitumour activity against B7-H3 expressing human PC models including cell lines, PDX-Os, and PDXs of adenocarcinoma and neuroendocrine histology. CONCLUSIONS: The frequent overexpression of B7-H3 in CRPC compared with normal tissue and other B7 family members implicates it as a highly relevant therapeutic target in these diseases. Mechanisms driving differences in B7-H3 expression across genomic subsets warrant investigation for understanding the role of B7-H3 in cancer growth and for the clinical development of B7-H3 targeted therapies. PATIENT SUMMARY: B7-H3, a protein expressed on the surface of the most lethal prostate cancers, in particular those with specific mutations, can be targeted using drugs that bind B7-H3. These findings are relevant for the development of such drugs and for deciding which patients to treat with these new drugs.

Prostate-specific Membrane Antigen Biology in Lethal Prostate Cancer and its Therapeutic Implications.

CONTEXT: Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is a promising, novel theranostic target in advanced prostate cancer (PCa). Multiple PSMA-targeted therapies are currently in clinical development, with some agents showing impressive antitumour activity, although optimal patient selection and therapeutic resistance remain ongoing challenges. OBJECTIVE: To review the biology of PSMA and recent advances in PSMA-targeted therapies in PCa, and to discuss potential strategies for patient selection and further therapeutic development. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: A comprehensive literature search was performed using PubMed and review of American Society of Clinical Oncology and European Society of Medical Oncology annual meeting abstracts up to April 2021. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: PSMA is a largely extracellular protein that is frequently, but heterogeneously, expressed by PCa cells. PSMA expression is associated with disease progression, worse clinical outcomes and the presence of tumour defects in DNA damage repair (DDR). PSMA is also expressed by other cancer cell types and is implicated in glutamate and folate metabolism. It may confer a tumour survival advantage in conditions of cellular stress. PSMA regulation is complex, and recent studies have shed light on interactions with androgen receptor, PI3K/Akt, and DDR signalling. A phase 2 clinical trial has shown that 177Lu-PSMA-617 causes tumour shrinkage and delays disease progression in a significant subset of patients with metastatic castration-resistant PCa in comparison to second-line chemotherapy. Numerous novel PSMA-targeting immunotherapies, small molecules, and antibody therapies are currently in clinical development, including in earlier stages of PCa, with emerging evidence of antitumour activity. To date, the regulation and function of PSMA in PCa cells remain poorly understood. CONCLUSIONS: There has been rapid recent progress in PSMA-targeted therapies for the management of advanced PCa. Dissection of PSMA biology will help to identify biomarkers for and resistance mechanisms to these therapies and facilitate further therapeutic development to improve PCa patient outcomes. PATIENT SUMMARY: There have been major advances in the development of therapies targeting a molecule, PSMA, in PCa. Radioactive molecules targeting PSMA can cause tumour shrinkage and delay progression in some patients with lethal disease. Future studies are needed to determine which patients are most likely to respond, and how other treatments can be combined with therapies targeting PSMA so that more patients may benefit.

Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen Expression and Response to DNA Damaging Agents in Prostate Cancer.

PURPOSE: Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeting therapies such as Lutetium-177 (177Lu)-PSMA-617 are affecting outcomes from metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). However, a significant subset of patients have prostate cancer cells lacking PSMA expression, raising concerns about treatment resistance attributable at least in part to heterogeneous PSMA expression. We have previously demonstrated an association between high PSMA expression and DNA damage repair defects in mCRPC biopsies and therefore hypothesized that DNA damage upregulates PSMA expression. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: To test this relationship between PSMA and DNA damage we conducted a screen of 147 anticancer agents (NCI/NIH FDA-approved anticancer "Oncology Set") and treated tumor cells with repeated ionizing irradiation. RESULTS: The topoisomerase-2 inhibitors, daunorubicin and mitoxantrone, were identified from the screen to upregulate PSMA protein expression in castration-resistant LNCaP95 cells; this result was validated in vitro in LNCaP, LNCaP95, and 22Rv1 cell lines and in vivo using an mCRPC patient-derived xenograft model CP286 identified to have heterogeneous PSMA expression. As double-strand DNA break induction by topoisomerase-2 inhibitors upregulated PSMA, we next studied the impact of ionizing radiation on PSMA expression; this also upregulated PSMA protein expression in a dose-dependent fashion. CONCLUSIONS: The results presented herein are the first, to our knowledge, to demonstrate that PSMA is upregulated in response to double-strand DNA damage by anticancer treatment. These data support the study of rational combinations that maximize the antitumor activity of PSMA-targeted therapeutic strategies by upregulating PSMA.

A chemical probe for BAG1 targets androgen receptor-positive prostate cancer through oxidative stress signaling pathway.

BAG1 is a family of polypeptides with a conserved C-terminal BAG domain that functions as a nucleotide exchange factor for the molecular chaperone HSP70. BAG1 proteins also control several signaling processes including proteostasis, apoptosis, and transcription. The largest isoform, BAG1L, controls the activity of the androgen receptor (AR) and is upregulated in prostate cancer. Here, we show that BAG1L regulates AR dynamics in the nucleus and its ablation attenuates AR target gene expression especially those involved in oxidative stress and metabolism. We show that a small molecule, A4B17, that targets the BAG domain downregulates AR target genes similar to a complete BAG1L knockout and upregulates the expression of oxidative stress-induced genes involved in cell death. Furthermore, A4B17 outperformed the clinically approved antagonist enzalutamide in inhibiting cell proliferation and prostate tumor development in a mouse xenograft model. BAG1 inhibitors therefore offer unique opportunities for antagonizing AR action and prostate cancer growth.

Assessment of Androgen Receptor Splice Variant-7 as a Biomarker of Clinical Response in Castration-Sensitive Prostate Cancer.

PURPOSE: Therapies targeting the androgen receptor (AR) have improved the outcome for patients with castration-sensitive prostate cancer (CSPC). Expression of the constitutively active AR splice variant-7 (AR-V7) has shown clinical utility as a predictive biomarker of AR-targeted therapy resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), but its importance in CSPC remains understudied. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We assessed different approaches to quantify AR-V7 mRNA and protein in prostate cancer cell lines, patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models, publicly available cohorts, and independent institutional clinical cohorts, to identify reliable approaches for detecting AR-V7 mRNA and protein and its association with clinical outcome. RESULTS: In CSPC and CRPC cohorts, AR-V7 mRNA was much less abundant when detected using reads across splice boundaries than when considering isoform-specific exonic reads. The RM7 AR-V7 antibody had increased sensitivity and specificity for AR-V7 protein detection by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in CRPC cohorts but rarely identified AR-V7 protein reactivity in CSPC cohorts, when compared with the EPR15656 AR-V7 antibody. Using multiple CRPC PDX models, we demonstrated that AR-V7 expression was exquisitely sensitive to hormonal manipulation. In CSPC institutional cohorts, AR-V7 protein quantification by either assay was associated neither with time to development of castration resistance nor with overall survival, and intense neoadjuvant androgen-deprivation therapy did not lead to significant AR-V7 mRNA or staining following treatment. Neither pre- nor posttreatment AR-V7 levels were associated with volumes of residual disease after therapy. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that further analytical validation and clinical qualification are required before AR-V7 can be considered for clinical use in CSPC as a predictive biomarker.

The anterior gradient 2 (AGR2) gene is overexpressed in prostate cancer and may be useful as a urine sediment marker for prostate cancer detection.

BACKGROUND: AGR2 is a member of the endoplasmatic reticulum protein disulphide isomerase gene family implicated in tumor metastasis. Its expression pattern, function, and utility as a marker remains to be further investigated. METHODS: Using real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry, changes of expression in different tumor stages were explored in microdissected tumor samples. AGR2 transcript level in urine sediments was scrutinized for suitability as a tumor marker. AGR2 androgen regulation and function were analyzed in cellular prostate cancer models. RESULTS: AGR2 is highly expressed in prostate cancer compared to benign tissue in particular also in low-grade tumors and PIN lesions. AGR2 transcripts were detected in urine sediments of patients undergoing prostate biopsy with significantly higher levels in tumor patients. The urine AGR2/PSA transcript ratio allowed much better discrimination between cancer and benign patients than serum total PSA or %freePSA. Prostate tumor cells express and secrete variable amounts of AGR2 protein, the highest level was found in PC3 cells. In androgen receptor-positive cell lines AGR2 is upregulated by androgens. Increased expression enhanced the migratory and invasive potential but decreased growth and proliferation in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSION: AGR2 enhances the invasion phenotype of prostate cancer cells while at the same time attenuating cell-cycle progression. This function, its expression pattern and the increased level of AGR transcripts in urine sediments of prostate cancer patients call for further exploration as a prostate cancer marker and a modulator of tumor growth and invasion.

The ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-1 is dispensable for the regulation of PTEN stability and localization.

PTEN is a tumor suppressor frequently mutated in cancer. Recent reports implicated Nedd4-1 as the E3 ubiquitin ligase for PTEN that regulates its stability and nuclear localization. We tested the physiological role of Nedd4-1 as a PTEN regulator by using cells and tissues derived from two independently generated strains of mice with their Nedd4-1 gene disrupted. PTEN stability and ubiquitination were indistinguishable between the wild-type and Nedd4-1-deficient cells, and an interaction between the two proteins could not be detected. Moreover, PTEN subcellular distribution, showing prominent cytoplasmic and nuclear staining, was independent of Nedd4-1 presence. Finally, activation of PKB/Akt, a major downstream target of cytoplasmic PTEN activity, and the ability of PTEN to transactivate the Rad51 promoter, a measure of its nuclear function, were unaffected by the loss of Nedd4-1. Taken together, our results fail to support a role for Nedd4-1 as the E3 ligase regulating PTEN stability and subcellular localization.

IER2-induced senescence drives melanoma invasion through osteopontin.

Expression of the immediate-early response gene IER2 has been associated with the progression of several types of cancer, but its functional role is poorly understood. We found that increased IER2 expression in human melanoma is associated with shorter overall survival, and subsequently investigated the mechanisms through which IER2 exerts this effect. In experimental melanoma models, sustained expression of IER2 induced senescence in a subset of melanoma cells in a p53/MAPK/AKT-dependent manner. The senescent cells produced a characteristic secretome that included high levels of the extracellular phosphoglycoprotein osteopontin. Nuclear localization of the IER2 protein was critical for both the induction of senescence and osteopontin secretion. Osteopontin secreted by IER2-expressing senescent cells strongly stimulated the migration and invasion of non-senescent melanoma cells. Consistently, we observed coordinate expression of IER2, p53/p21, and osteopontin in primary human melanomas and metastases, highlighting the pathophysiological relevance of IER2-mediated senescence in melanoma progression. Together, our study reveals that sustained IER2 expression drives melanoma invasion and progression through stimulating osteopontin secretion via the stochastic induction of senescence.

Emergence of Enzalutamide Resistance in Prostate Cancer is Associated with BCL-2 and IKKB Dependencies.

PURPOSE: Although enzalutamide (ENZ) has been widely used to treat de novo or castration-resistant metastatic prostate cancer, resistance develops and disease progression is ultimately inevitable. There are currently no approved targeted drugs to specifically delay or overcome ENZ resistance. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We selected several ENZ-resistant cell lines that replicated clinical characteristics of the majority of patients with ENZ-resistant disease. A high-throughput pharmacologic screen was utilized to identify compounds with greater cytotoxic effect for ENZ-resistant cell lines, compared with parental ENZ-sensitive cells. We validated the potential hits in vitro and in vivo, and used knockdown and overexpression assays to study the dependencies in ENZ-resistant prostate cancer. RESULTS: ABT199 (BCL-2 inhibitor) and IMD0354 (IKKB inhibitor) were identified as potent and selective inhibitors of cell viability in ENZ-resistant cell lines in vitro and in vivo which were further validated using loss-of-function assays of BCL-2 and IKKB. Notably, we observed that overexpression of BCL-2 and IKKB in ENZ-sensitive cell lines was sufficient for the emergence of ENZ resistance. In addition, we confirmed that BCL-2 or IKKB inhibitors suppressed the development of ENZ resistance in xenografts. However, validation of both BCL-2 and IKKB in matched castration-sensitive/resistant clinical samples showed that, concurrent with the development of ENZ/abiraterone resistance in patients, only the protein levels of IKKB were increased. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings identify BCL-2 and IKKB dependencies in clinically relevant ENZ-resistant prostate cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, but indicate that IKKB upregulation appears to have greater relevance to the progression of human castrate-resistant prostate cancer.

CD38 in Advanced Prostate Cancers.

BACKGROUND: CD38, a druggable ectoenzyme, is involved in the generation of adenosine, which is implicated in tumour immune evasion. Its expression and role in prostate tumour-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) have not been elucidated. OBJECTIVE: To characterise CD38 expression on prostate cancer (PC) epithelial cells and TIICs, and to associate this expression with clinical outcomes. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: RNAseq from 159 patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) in the International Stand Up To Cancer/Prostate Cancer Foundation (SU2C/PCF) cohort and 171 mCRPC samples taken from 63 patients in the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Centre cohort were analysed. CD38 expression was immunohistochemically scored by a validated assay on 51 castration-resistant PC (CRPC) and matching, same-patient castration-sensitive PC (CSPC) biopsies obtained between 2016 and 2018, and was associated with retrospectively collected clinical data. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: mCRPC transcriptomes were analysed for associations between CD38 expression and gene expression signatures. Multiplex immunofluorescence determined CD38 expression in PC biopsies. Differences in CD38+ TIIC densities between CSPC and CRPC biopsies were analysed using a negative binomial mixed model. Differences in the proportions of CD38+ epithelial cells between non-matched benign prostatic epithelium and PC were compared using Fisher's exact test. Differences in the proportions of biopsies containing CD38+ tumour epithelial cells between matched CSPC and CRPC biopsies were compared by McNemar's test. Univariable and multivariable survival analyses were performed using Cox regression models. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: CD38 mRNA expression in mCRPC was most significantly associated with upregulated immune signalling pathways. CD38 mRNA expression was associated with interleukin (IL)-12, IL-23, and IL-27 signalling signatures as well as immunosuppressive adenosine signalling and T cell exhaustion signatures. CD38 protein was frequently expressed on phenotypically diverse TIICs including B cells and myeloid cells, but largely absent from tumour epithelial cells. CD38+ TIIC density increased with progression to CRPC and was independently associated with worse overall survival. Future studies are required to dissect TIIC CD38 function. CONCLUSIONS: CD38+ prostate TIICs associate with worse survival and immunosuppressive mechanisms. The role of CD38 in PC progression warrants investigation as insights into its functions may provide rationale for CD38 targeting in lethal PC. PATIENT SUMMARY: CD38 is expressed on the surface of white blood cells surrounding PC cells. These cells may impact PC growth and treatment resistance. Patients with PC with more CD38-expressing white blood cells are more likely to die earlier.