RESUMEN
Stroke burden is substantially increasing but current therapeutic drugs are still far from ideal. Here we highlight the vast potential of staphylokinase as an efficient, fibrin-selective, inexpensive, and evolvable thrombolytic agent. The emphasis is escalated by new recent findings. Staphylokinase nonimmunogenic variant was proven noninferior to alteplase in a clinical trial, with decreased risk of intracranial hemorrhage and the advantage of single bolus administration. Furthermore, our detailed kinetic analysis revealed a new staphylokinase limiting bottleneck whose elimination might provide up to 1000-fold higher activity than the clinically approved alteplase. This knowledge of limitations unlocks new possibilities for improvements that are now achievable by the community of protein engineers who have the required expertise and are ready to transform staphylokinase into a powerful molecule. Collectively, the noninferiority and safety of nonimmunogenic staphylokinase together with the newly identified effectivity limitation make staphylokinase a perfect candidate for further exploration, modification, and advancement to make it the next-generation widely accessible thrombolytic drug effectively treating stroke all around the world, including middle- and low-income countries.
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Fibrinolíticos , Accidente Cerebrovascular , Fibrina , Fibrinolíticos/uso terapéutico , Humanos , Cinética , Metaloendopeptidasas/metabolismo , Metaloendopeptidasas/uso terapéutico , Accidente Cerebrovascular/tratamiento farmacológico , Terapia Trombolítica , Activador de Tejido Plasminógeno/uso terapéuticoRESUMEN
Cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases are leading causes of death and disability, resulting in one of the highest socio-economic burdens of any disease type. The discovery of bacterial and human plasminogen activators and their use as thrombolytic drugs have revolutionized treatment of these pathologies. Fibrin-specific agents have an advantage over non-specific factors because of lower rates of deleterious side effects. Specifically, staphylokinase (SAK) is a pharmacologically attractive indirect plasminogen activator protein of bacterial origin that forms stoichiometric noncovalent complexes with plasmin, promoting the conversion of plasminogen into plasmin. Here we report a computer-assisted re-design of the molecular surface of SAK to increase its affinity for plasmin. A set of computationally designed SAK mutants was produced recombinantly and biochemically characterized. Screening revealed a pharmacologically interesting SAK mutant with â¼7-fold enhanced affinity toward plasmin, â¼10-fold improved plasmin selectivity and moderately higher plasmin-generating efficiency in vitro. Collectively, the results obtained provide a framework for SAK engineering using computational affinity-design that could pave the way to next-generation of effective, highly selective, and less toxic thrombolytics.
RESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The discovery of restriction endonucleases and modification DNA methyltransferases, key instruments of genetic engineering, opened a new era of molecular biology through development of the recombinant DNA technology. Today, the number of potential proteins assigned to type II restriction enzymes alone is beyond 6000, which probably reflects the high diversity of evolutionary pathways. Here we present experimental evidence that a new type IIC restriction and modification enzymes carrying both activities in a single polypeptide could result from fusion of the appropriate genes from preexisting bipartite restriction-modification systems. RESULTS: Fusion of eco29kIR and M ORFs gave a novel gene encoding for a fully functional hybrid polypeptide that carried both restriction endonuclease and DNA methyltransferase activities. It has been placed into a subclass of type II restriction and modification enzymes--type IIC. Its MTase activity, 80% that of the M.Eco29kI enzyme, remained almost unchanged, while its REase activity decreased by three times, concurrently with changed reaction optima, which presumably can be caused by increased steric hindrance in interaction with the substrate. In vitro the enzyme preferentially cuts DNA, with only a low level of DNA modification detected. In vivo new RMS can provide a 102-fold less protection of host cells against phage invasion. CONCLUSIONS: We propose a molecular mechanism of appearing of type IIC restriction-modification and M.SsoII-related enzymes, as well as other multifunctional proteins. As shown, gene fusion could play an important role in evolution of restriction-modification systems and be responsible for the enzyme subclass interconversion. Based on the proposed approach, hundreds of new type IIC enzymes can be generated using head-to-tail oriented type I, II, and III restriction and modification genes. These bifunctional polypeptides can serve a basis for enzymes with altered recognition specificities. Lastly, this study demonstrates that protein fusion may change biochemical properties of the involved enzymes, thus giving a starting point for their further evolutionary divergence.
Asunto(s)
Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Evolución Biológica , Metilasas de Modificación del ADN/metabolismo , Desoxirribonucleasas de Localización Especificada Tipo II/metabolismo , Péptidos/metabolismo , Secuencia de Aminoácidos , Proteínas Bacterianas/química , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Metilasas de Modificación del ADN/genética , Enzimas de Restricción-Modificación del ADN/química , Enzimas de Restricción-Modificación del ADN/genética , Enzimas de Restricción-Modificación del ADN/metabolismo , Desoxirribonucleasas de Localización Especificada Tipo II/química , Desoxirribonucleasas de Localización Especificada Tipo II/genética , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Péptidos/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/química , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/metabolismo , Alineación de SecuenciaRESUMEN
Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains harboring a nonreciprocal, bridge-induced translocation (BIT) between chromosomes VIII and XV exhibited an abnormal phenotype comprising elongated buds and multibudded, unevenly nucleated pseudohyphae. In these cells, we found evidence of molecular effects elicited by the translocation event and specific for its particular genomic location. Expression of genes flanking both translocation breakpoints increased up to five times, correlating with an increased RNA polymerase II binding to their promoters and with their histone acetylation pattern. Microarray data, CHEF, and quantitative PCR confirmed the data on the dosage of genes present on the chromosomal regions involved in the translocation, indicating that telomeric fragments were either duplicated or integrated mostly on chromosome XI. FACS analysis revealed that the majority of translocant cells were blocked in G(1) phase and a few of them in G(2). Some cells showed a posttranslational decrease of cyclin B1, in agreement with elongated buds diagnostic of a G(2)/M phase arrest. The actin1 protein was in some cases modified, possibly explaining the abnormal morphology of the cells. Together with the decrease in Rad53p and the lack of its phosphorylation, these results indicate that these cells have undergone adaptation after checkpoint-mediated G(2)/M arrest after chromosome translocation. These BIT translocants could serve as model systems to understand further the cellular and molecular effects of chromosome translocation and provide fundamental information on its etiology of neoplastic transformation in mammals.
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Cromosomas Fúngicos , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Translocación Genética , Actinas/genética , Adaptación Fisiológica/genética , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/genética , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/metabolismo , Quinasa de Punto de Control 2 , Ciclina B/genética , Ciclina B1 , Perfilación de la Expresión Génica , Interfase , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/genética , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismoRESUMEN
Despite recent advances in recanalization therapy, mechanical thrombectomy will never be a treatment for every ischemic stroke because access to mechanical thrombectomy is still limited in many countries. Moreover, many ischemic strokes are caused by occlusion of cerebral arteries that cannot be reached by intra-arterial catheters. Reperfusion using thrombolytic agents will therefore remain an important therapy for hyperacute ischemic stroke. However, thrombolytic drugs have shown limited efficacy and notable hemorrhagic complication rates, leaving room for improvement. A comprehensive understanding of basic and clinical research pipelines as well as the current status of thrombolytic therapy will help facilitate the development of new thrombolytics. Compared with alteplase, an ideal thrombolytic agent is expected to provide faster reperfusion in more patients; prevent re-occlusions; have higher fibrin specificity for selective activation of clot-bound plasminogen to decrease bleeding complications; be retained in the blood for a longer time to minimize dosage and allow administration as a single bolus; be more resistant to inhibitors; and be less antigenic for repetitive usage. Here, we review the currently available thrombolytics, strategies for the development of new clot-dissolving substances, and the assessment of thrombolytic efficacies in vitro and in vivo.
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We describe the 'Crescendo Mouse', a human VH transgenic platform combining an engineered heavy chain locus with diverse human heavy chain V, D and J genes, a modified mouse Cγ1 gene and complete 3' regulatory region, in a triple knock-out (TKO) mouse background devoid of endogenous immunoglobulin expression. The addition of the engineered heavy chain locus to the TKO mouse restored B cell development, giving rise to functional B cells that responded to immunization with a diverse response that comprised entirely 'heavy chain only' antibodies. Heavy chain variable (VH) domain libraries were rapidly mined using phage display technology, yielding diverse high-affinity human VH that had undergone somatic hypermutation, lacked aggregation and showed enhanced expression in E. coli. The Crescendo Mouse produces human VH fragments, or Humabody® VH, with excellent bio-therapeutic potential, as exemplified here by the generation of antagonistic Humabody® VH specific for human IL17A and IL17RA.
Asunto(s)
Anticuerpos/inmunología , Cadenas Pesadas de Inmunoglobulina/inmunología , Región Variable de Inmunoglobulina/inmunología , Animales , Formación de Anticuerpos/inmunología , Fenómenos Biofísicos , Humanos , Ratones NoqueadosRESUMEN
A new type II 6His-Eco29kI DNA methyltransferase was tested for methylation site (CC(Me)GCGG) and catalytic reaction optimal conditions. With high substrate concentrations, an inhibitory effect of DNA, but not AdoMet, on its activity was observed. Isotope partitioning and substrate preincubation assays showed that the enzyme-AdoMet complex is catalytically active. Considering effect of different concentrations of DNA and AdoMet on initial velocity, ping-pong mechanisms were ruled out. According to data obtained, the enzyme appears to work by preferred ordered bi-bi mechanism with AdoMet as leading substrate.
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Metilación de ADN , ADN-Citosina Metilasas/química , Proteínas de Escherichia coli/química , Escherichia coli/enzimología , Adenosina/análogos & derivados , Adenosina/química , Sitios de Unión , Catálisis , Etionina/análogos & derivados , Etionina/química , Cinética , Especificidad por SustratoRESUMEN
Type II restriction endonucleases and modification DNA-methyltransferases are key instruments of genetic engineering. Recently the number of proteins assigned to this group exceeds 8500. Subtype IIC organizes bifunctional endonuclease-methyltransferase enzymes and currently consists of 16 described members. Here we present phylogenetic tree of 22 new potential bifunctional endonucleases. The majority of them are thought to be fusions of a restriction nuclease with a DNA-methyltransferase and a target recognition subunit of type I restriction-modification systems (R-M-S structure). A RM.AloI isoschizomer from Prevotella copri DSM-18205, PcoI, has been cloned, purified and its REase activity demonstrated. It cuts DNA in magnesium-dependent manner and demonstrates high affinity to DNA, which probably reflects its mechanism of action. This work provides additional proves that gene fusion might play an important role in evolution of restriction-modification systems and other DNA-modifying proteins.
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Proteínas Bacterianas/química , Metilasas de Modificación del ADN/química , Desoxirribonucleasas de Localización Especificada Tipo II/química , Prevotella/enzimologíaRESUMEN
HlyIIR is a negative transcriptional regulator of hemolysin II gene from B. cereus. It binds to a long DNA perfect inverted repeat (44bp) located upstream the hlyII gene. Here we show that HlyIIR is dimeric in solution and in bacterial cells. No protein-protein interactions between dimers and no significant modification of target DNA conformation upon complex formation were observed. Two HlyIIR dimers were found to bind to native operator independently with Kd level in the nanomolar range. The minimal HlyIIR binding site was identified as a half of the long DNA perfect inverted repeat.
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Bacillus cereus/genética , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Toxinas Bacterianas/genética , Proteínas Hemolisinas/genética , Regiones Operadoras Genéticas , Secuencias Repetitivas de Ácidos Nucleicos , Sitios de Unión , Dimerización , Genes Bacterianos , Conformación de Ácido Nucleico , Unión ProteicaRESUMEN
In mammalian organisms liquid tumors such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are related to spontaneous chromosomal translocations ensuing in gene fusions. We previously developed a system named bridge-induced translocation (BIT) that allows linking together two different chromosomes exploiting the strong endogenous homologous recombination system of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The BIT system generates a heterogeneous population of cells with different aneuploidies and severe aberrant phenotypes reminiscent of a cancerogenic transformation. In this work, thanks to a complex pop-out methodology of the marker used for the selection of translocants, we succeeded by BIT technology to precisely reproduce in yeast the peculiar chromosome translocation that has been associated with AML, characterized by the fusion between the human genes NUP98 and TOP2B. To shed light on the origin of the DNA fragility within NUP98, an extensive analysis of the curvature, bending, thermostability, and B-Z transition aptitude of the breakpoint region of NUP98 and of its yeast ortholog NUP145 has been performed. On this basis, a DNA cassette carrying homologous tails to the two genes was amplified by PCR and allowed the targeted fusion between NUP145 and TOP2, leading to reproduce the chimeric transcript in a diploid strain of S. cerevisiae. The resulting translocated yeast obtained through BIT appears characterized by abnormal spherical bodies of nearly 500 nm of diameter, absence of external membrane and defined cytoplasmic localization. Since Nup98 is a well-known regulator of the post-transcriptional modification of P53 target genes, and P53 mutations are occasionally reported in AML, this translocant yeast strain can be used as a model to test the constitutive expression of human P53. Although the abnormal phenotype of the translocant yeast was never rescued by its expression, an exogenous P53 was recognized to confer increased vitality to the translocants, in spite of its usual and well-documented toxicity to wild-type yeast strains. These results obtained in yeast could provide new grounds for the interpretation of past observations made in leukemic patients indicating a possible involvement of P53 in cell transformation toward AML.
RESUMEN
Chromosome translocations are often observed in cancer cells, being in some cases the cause of neoplastic transformation while in others the results of it. In previous works, we reproduced this major genomic rearrangement by bridge-induced chromosome translocation (BIT) technology in the model eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae and reported that it affects DNA replication, cell cycle, karyogamy, and cytokinesis while it produces genetic instability. In the present work, we further discovered that this event can lead to increased resistance to anticancer chemicals like Doxorubicin and Latrunculin A via an endocytic actin network deregulation triggered by over-expression of the PRK1 serine/threonine protein kinase gene. This effect is further enhanced by the overexpression of PDR1 and PDR3 transcriptional regulators of pleiotropic drug resistance factors. However, when the actin depolymerizing drug Latrunculin A is forcefully allowed to penetrate through their altered cell wall and membrane barriers, it can kill translocants more efficiently than wild type cells. These observations provide an example of an acquired anticancer drug resistance mechanism and could serve as a lead to how it might be overcome, as any treatment inhibiting genome rearrangements could increase the positive outcome of anticancer therapy by lowering cellular drug resistance.
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Actinas/genética , Antineoplásicos/farmacología , Cromosomas Fúngicos/genética , Resistencia a Antineoplásicos/genética , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/efectos de los fármacos , Translocación Genética , Actinas/metabolismo , Actinas/ultraestructura , Compuestos Bicíclicos Heterocíclicos con Puentes/farmacología , Doxorrubicina/farmacología , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Tiazolidinas/farmacologíaRESUMEN
We constructed a strain of Escherichia coli overproducing 6His-tagged Eco29kI by placing the coding sequence under control of a strong bacteriophage T5 promoter. The yield of 6His-Eco29kI restriction endonuclease expression could be increased to about 20% of the total cellular protein, but inclusion bodies formed consisting of insoluble 6His-Eco29kI protein. We developed a fast and effective protocol for purification of the homogeneous enzyme from both soluble and insoluble fractions and established their identity by catalytic activity assay. The isolated enzymes were tested for recognition specificity and optimal reaction conditions as a function of NaCl and KCl concentrations, temperature, and pH compared with the native Eco29kI restriction endonuclease. The 6His-tagged enzyme retained the specificity of the native protein but had an altered optimum of its catalytic reaction.
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Proteínas Bacterianas/aislamiento & purificación , Proteínas Bacterianas/metabolismo , Desoxirribonucleasas de Localización Especificada Tipo II/aislamiento & purificación , Desoxirribonucleasas de Localización Especificada Tipo II/metabolismo , Histidina/metabolismo , Secuencia de Aminoácidos , Proteínas Bacterianas/química , Proteínas Bacterianas/genética , Desoxirribonucleasas de Localización Especificada Tipo II/química , Desoxirribonucleasas de Localización Especificada Tipo II/genética , Electroforesis en Gel de Agar , Escherichia coli/genética , Cuerpos de Inclusión/química , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/química , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/aislamiento & purificación , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/metabolismo , Homología de Secuencia de Aminoácido , SolubilidadRESUMEN
Haemolysin II, HlyII, is one of several cytotoxic proteins produced by Bacillus cereus, an opportunistic human pathogen that causes food poisoning. The hlyII gene confers haemolytic activity to Escherichia coli cells. Here a new B. cereus gene, hlyIIR, which is located immediately downstream of hlyII and regulates hlyII expression, is reported. The deduced amino acid sequence of HlyIIR is similar to prokaryotic DNA-binding transcriptional regulators of the TetR/AcrA family. Measurements of haemolytic activity levels and of hlyII promoter activity levels using gene fusions and primer-extension assays demonstrated that, in E. coli, hlyII transcription decreased in the presence of hlyIIR. Recombinant HlyIIR binds to a 22 bp inverted DNA repeat centred 48 bp upstream of the hlyII promoter transcription initiation point. In vitro transcription studies showed that HlyIIR inhibits transcription from the hlyII promoter by binding to the 22 bp repeat and RNA polymerase, and by decreasing the formation of the catalytically competent open promoter complex.