Indirect protection of adults from rotavirus by pediatric rotavirus vaccination.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric vaccination has resulted in declines in disease in unvaccinated individuals through decreasing pathogen circulation in the community. About 2 years after implementation of pediatric rotavirus vaccination in the United States, dramatic declines in rotavirus disease were observed in both vaccinated and unvaccinated children. Whether this protection extends to adults is unknown. METHODS: The prevalence of rotavirus, as determined by Rotaclone enzyme immunoassay, in adults who had stools submitted for bacterial stool culture (BSC) between February to May to Northwestern Memorial Hospital, Chicago, was compared between the prepediatric impact era (2006-2007) and the pediatric impact era (2008-2010). Isolates were genotyped and clinical characteristics of those with rotavirus were compared. RESULTS: Of the 5788 BSC sent, 4725 met inclusion criteria and 3530 of these (74.7%) were saved for rotavirus testing. The prevalence of rotavirus among adults who had stool sent for BSC declined from 4.35% in 2006-2007 to 2.24% in 2008-2010 (a relative decline of 48.4%; P = .0007). The decline in the prevalence of rotavirus was of similar significant magnitude in both outpatients and inpatients. Marked year-to-year variability was observed in circulating rotavirus genotypes, with strain G2P[4] accounting for 24%; G1P[8], 22%; G3P[8], 11%; and G12P[6], 10% overall. About 30% of adults from whom rotavirus was isolated were immunocompromised and this remained constant. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric rotavirus vaccination correlated with a relative decline of almost 50% in rotavirus identified from adult BSC during the peak rotavirus season, suggesting that pediatric rotavirus vaccination protects adults from rotavirus.

The impact of infection control upon hospital-acquired influenza and respiratory syncytial virus.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and influenza are important pediatric community-acquired (CA) and hospital-acquired (HA) pathogens. The occurrence of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza resulted in additional efforts to intensify infection control (IC) strategies. We detail the impact of IC strategies between 2003 and 2010 on influenza and RSV. METHODS: We assessed the rates of CA infections per 100 admissions and HA infections per 1000 patient-days for both RSV and influenza at Children's Memorial Hospital during the winter seasons (September through May) 2003-2010. The season of 2009, however, was extended through June due to ongoing admissions as a result of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza. IC strategies implemented in response to pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza are described. The transmission ratio (HA cases/CA cases) was determined and correlated with IC efforts. RESULTS: Substantial season- to-season variability exists for CA RSV and CA influenza rates. The rates of HA RSV and HA influenza and the transmission ratios for these viruses remained unchanged in 2009-10 in comparison to the prior year (at 0.02 and 0.01, respectively) despite implementation of multiple IC strategies. In contrast, since 2005 an inverse association was noted between hand hygiene compliance and the transmission ratio of both RSV and influenza, with Spearman correlation coefficients of -0.84 (p = 0.051) and -0.89 (p = 0.008), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We observed that improvements in hand hygiene compliance correlated with less transmission of RSV and influenza in the hospital. The important role of hand hygiene in preventing transmission of RSV and influenza to hospitalized children should be emphasized.

Native valve endocarditis due to a novel strain of Legionella.

Legionellae are Gram-negative bacteria which are capable of causing disease, most commonly in the form of pneumonia. We describe a case of native valve endocarditis caused by a Legionella strain which by genotypic (16S rRNA and mip gene sequencing) and phenotypic analyses is unlike previously described strains of Legionella.

Incidence and impact of false-positive urine pneumococcal antigen testing in hospitalized patients.

OBJECTIVES: Immunochromatographic urine pneumococcal antigen testing (ICT) has become a common diagnostic tool for those presenting with possible invasive pneumococcal disease. The incidence and clinical impact of ICT false-positivity on hospitalized patients has not been assessed outside of specific patient subpopulations. ICT performance needs to be assessed in a real-world clinical setting. This study aims to describe the incidence and clinical impact of ICT false-positivity in a hospital setting over a 19-month period. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed to assess the incidence of false-positive (FP) ICT among hospitalized patients from November 21, 2007 to June 30, 2009. The primary objective was to describe the incidence of FP ICT results. The secondary objective was to describe what clinical impact, if any, could be attributed to FP ICT results. RESULTS: During the study period, 52 positive ICT results were obtained, of which 5 (9.6%) were deemed falsely positive. Interestingly, two of the 5 FP results were from patients who had received 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine (PPV) in the 2 days prior to ICT. The management of all 5 patients was impacted by the FP results through unnecessary antimicrobial treatment and/or deferral of further clinical evaluation. CONCLUSION: Health care providers should be aware of the potential for ICT FP and should order and interpret these tests within an informed clinical framework.

Results of the Medications at Transitions and Clinical Handoffs (MATCH) study: an analysis of medication reconciliation errors and risk factors at hospital admission.

BACKGROUND: This study was designed to determine risk factors and potential harm associated with medication errors at hospital admission. METHODS: Study pharmacist and hospital-physician medication histories were compared with medication orders to identify unexplained history and order discrepancies in 651 adult medicine service inpatients with 5,701 prescription medications. Discrepancies resulting in order changes were considered errors. Logistic regression was used to analyze the association of patient demographic and clinical characteristics including patients' number of pre-admission prescription medications, pharmacies, prescribing physicians and medication changes; and presentation of medication bottles or lists. These factors were tested after controlling for patient demographics, admitting service and severity of illness. RESULTS: Over one-third of study patients (35.9%) experienced 309 order errors; 85% of patients had errors originate in medication histories, and almost half were omissions. Cardiovascular agents were commonly in error (29.1%). If undetected, 52.4% of order errors were rated as potentially requiring increased monitoring or intervention to preclude harm; 11.7% were rated as potentially harmful. In logistic regression analysis, patient's age > or = 65 [odds ratio (OR), 2.17; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.09-4.30] and number of prescription medications (OR, 1.21; 95% CI, 1.14-1.29) were significantly associated with errors potentially requiring monitoring or causing harm. Presenting a medication list (OR, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.19-0.63) or bottles (OR, 0.55; 95% CI, 0.27-1.10) at admission was beneficial. CONCLUSION: Over one-third of the patients in our study had a medication error at admission, and of these patients, 85% had errors originate in their medication histories. Attempts to improve the accuracy of medication histories should focus on older patients with a large number of medications. Primary care physicians and other clinicians should help patients utilize and maintain complete, accurate and understandable medication lists.

Using patient safety morbidity and mortality conferences to promote transparency and a culture of safety.

BACKGROUND: Although creating a culture of safety to support clinicians and improve the quality of patient care is a common goal among health care organizations, it can be difficult to envision specific efforts to directly influence organizational culture. To promote transparency and reinforce a nonpunitive attitude throughout the organization, a forum for the open, interdisciplinary discussion of patient safety problems--the Patient Safety Morbidity and Mortality (M&M) Conference--was created at Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago). The intent of the M&M conference was to inform frontline providers about adverse events that occur at the hospital and to engage their input in root cause analysis, thereby encouraging reporting and promoting systems-based thinking among clinicians. METHODS: Convened under the purview of the organization's quality program, and modeled on the traditional M&M conferences historically used by physicians, the conference is a monthly live meeting at which case studies are presented for retrospective (root cause) analysis by an interdisciplinary audience. RESULTS: Since its start in 2003, approximately 60 patient safety M&M programs have been presented. Audiences typically represent a mix of physicians, nurses, pharmacists, management, therapists, and administrative and support staff. Staff perceptions of culture, as measured by the Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture, showed statistically significant improvements over time. DISCUSSION: Ensuring the patient safety M&M conference program's sustained success requires an ongoing commitment to identifying events of clinical importance and to pursuing the productive discussion of these events in an open and safe forum. Patient safety M&M conferences are a valued opportunity to engage staff in exploring adverse events and to promote transparency and a nonpunitive culture.

Improved surveillance for surgical site infections after orthopedic implantation procedures: extending applications for automated data.

BACKGROUND: Screening methods that use automated data may streamline surgical site infection (SSI) surveillance and improve the accuracy and comparability of data on SSIs. We evaluated the use of automated inpatient diagnosis codes and pharmacy data to identify SSIs after arthroplasty. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study at 8 hospitals involved weighted, random samples of medical records from 2128 total hip arthroplasty (THA) procedures performed from 1 July 2002 through 30 June 2004, and 4194 total knee arthroplasty (TKA) procedures performed from 1 July 2003 through 30 June 2005. We compared routine surveillance with screening of inpatient pharmacy data and diagnoses codes followed by medical record review to confirm SSI status. RESULTS: Records from 696 THA and 1009 TKA procedures were reviewed. The SSI rates were nearly double those determined by routine surveillance (1.32% [95% confidence interval, 0.83%-1.81%] vs. 0.75% for THA; 1.83% [95% confidence interval, 1.43%-2.23%] vs. 0.71% for TKA). An inpatient diagnosis code for infection within a year after the operation had substantially higher sensitivity (THA, 89%; TKA, 81%), compared with routine surveillance (THA, 56%; TKA, 39%). Adding antimicrobial exposure of 7 days after the procedure increased the sensitivity (THA, 93%; TKA, 86%). Record review confirmed SSIs after 51% of THAs and 55% of TKAs that met diagnosis code criteria and after 25% of THAs and 39% of TKAs that met antimicrobial exposure and/or diagnosis code criteria. CONCLUSIONS: Focused surveillance among a subset of patients who met diagnosis code screening criteria with or without the addition of antimicrobial exposure-based screening was more sensitive than routine surveillance for detecting SSIs after arthroplasty and could be an efficient and readily standardized adjunct to traditional methods.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of an antimicrobial stewardship team on bloodstream infections: a probabilistic analysis.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to determine the cost-effectiveness of Antimicrobial Stewardship Teams (ASTs) on the reduction of morbidity and mortality associated with nosocomial bacteraemia. METHODS: A decision analytic model compared costs and outcomes of bacteraemic patients receiving standard treatment with or without an AST consult. Patients with a bacteraemic event during their hospital admission were included in the model. Effectiveness was estimated as quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) over the lifetime of patients. Model variables and costs, along with their distributions, were obtained from the literature and expert opinion. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) were calculated to estimate the cost per QALY gained from the hospital perspective. Uncertainty in ICERs was evaluated with probabilistic sensitivity analyses. The cost-effectiveness of clinical decision support systems was evaluated as a secondary analysis. RESULTS: Implementing an AST for bacteraemia review cost $39,737 (95% CI $27,272-53, 017) and standard treatment cost $39,563 (95% CI $27,164-52,797). The difference in effectiveness between the two strategies was 0.08 QALYs, and the base case ICER from the probabilistic analysis was $2367 per QALY gained [95% CI dominant (less costly, more effective) to $24,379]. Results from the probabilistic sensitivity analysis demonstrated there was more than a 90% likelihood that an AST would be cost-effective at a level of $10,000 per QALY. CONCLUSIONS: Maintaining an AST to improve care for bacteraemia is cost-effective from the hospital perspective. The estimate of $2367 per QALY gained for the AST intervention compares favourably with many currently funded healthcare interventions and services.

Infection control practices among interventional radiologists: results of an online survey.

PURPOSE: To assess current infection control practices of interventional radiologists (IRs) in the context of recommendations by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From November 2006 to January 2007, members of the Society of Interventional Radiology (SIR) were invited to participate in an anonymous, online infection control questionnaire. RESULTS: A total of 3,019 SIR members in the United States were contacted via e-mail, and 1,061 (35%) completed the 57-item survey. Of the respondents, 283 (25%) experienced a needlestick injury within the previous year, most often as a result of operator error (76%). Less than 65% reported compliance with annual tuberculosis skin testing; notably, those who received a yearly reminder were much more likely to receive annual testing than those who did not (odds ratio, 19.0; 95% CI, 12.6-28.7; P < .05). During central venous catheter placement, only 56% wore gowns, 50% wore caps, and 54% used full barrier precautions. Only 19% reported routine hand washing between glove applications. More than 40% noted a change in infection control practices within the previous 5 years, citing new hospital guidelines and recommendations by a professional organization as the reasons for change. Only 44% had infection control training at the onset of their practice. CONCLUSIONS: IRs demonstrate a wide variety of infection control practices that are not in accordance with current guidelines. IRs were most likely to change infection control practice if required to do so by their own hospitals or a professional organization. SIR can play an important role in the prevention of health care-associated infection by reinforcing current infection control guidelines as they pertain to interventional radiology.

Using theoretical constructs to identify key issues for targeted message design: African American seniors' perceptions about influenza and influenza vaccination.

African American seniors (65 and older) are less likely to be vaccinated against influenza than are non-Hispanic White seniors. There is a clear need for targeted messages and interventions to address this disparity. As a first step, 6 focus groups of African American seniors (N = 48) were conducted to identify current perceptions about influenza and influenza vaccination. Emergent thematic categories were organized using the 4 main constructs of the extended parallel process model. Susceptibility varied based on perceptions of individual health status, background knowledge, and age-related risk. Some participants saw influenza as a minor nuisance; others viewed it as threatening and potentially deadly. Participants discussed issues related or antecedent to self-efficacy, including vaccine accessibility and affordability. Regarding response efficacy, some participants had confidence in the vaccine, some questioned its preventive ability or believed that the vaccine caused influenza, and others noted expected side effects. Implications and recommendations for message development are discussed.

Contamination of examination gloves in patient rooms and implications for transmission of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms .

An assessment of bacterial contamination on examination gloves indicated that contaminated gloves may be a mechanism of indirect bacterial transmission from the hands of healthcare workers to patients. This mechanism is indicated by the recovery of identical Acinetobacter baumannii isolates from gloves and from the clinical cultures of a patient with invasive infection.

Budget impact analysis of rapid screening for Staphylococcus aureus colonization among patients undergoing elective surgery in US hospitals .

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the economic impact of performing rapid testing for Staphylococcus aureus colonization before admission for all inpatients who are scheduled to undergo elective surgery and providing subsequent decolonization therapy for those patients found to be colonized with S. aureus. METHODS: A budget impact model that used probabilistic sensitivity analysis to account for the uncertainties in the input variables was developed. Primary input variables included the marginal effect of S. aureus infection on patient outcomes among patients who underwent elective surgery, patient demographic characteristics, the prevalence of nasal carriage of S. aureus, the sensitivity and specificity of the rapid diagnostic test for S. aureus colonization, the efficacy of decolonization therapy for nasal carriage of S. aureus, and cost data. Data sources for the input variables included the 2003 Nationwide Inpatient Sample data and the published literature. RESULTS: In 2003, there were an estimated 7,181,484 patients admitted to US hospitals for elective surgery. Our analysis indicated preadmission testing and subsequent decolonization therapy for patients colonized with S. aureus would have produced a mean annual cost savings to US hospitals of $231,538,400 (95% confidence interval [CI], -$300 million to $1.3 billion). The mean annual number of hospital-days that could have been eliminated was estimated at 364,919 days (95% CI, 67,893-926,983 days), and a mean of 935 in-hospital deaths (95% CI, 88-3,691) could have been avoided per year. Sensitivity analysis indicated a 64.5% probability that there would be cost savings to US hospitals as a result of preadmission testing and subsequent decolonization therapy. CONCLUSION: The addition of preadmission testing and decolonization therapy to standard care would result in significant cost savings, even after accounting for variations in the model input values.

Persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: an analysis of risk factors and outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (pSAB) is an emerging problem among hospitalized patients. We studied key clinical characteristics and outcomes associated with pSAB to better define the epidemiological features of this increasingly recognized clinical entity. METHODS: A retrospective case-control study of patients hospitalized with SAB between January 1, 2001, and September 30, 2004, was conducted to compare the clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients with pSAB (> 7 days of bacteremia) with those of a cohort of patients with nonpersistent SAB (< 3 days of bacteremia). Patients with 4 to 6 days of bacteremia were excluded from the analysis. To detect a potential association between reduced susceptibility to vancomycin and persistent methicillin-resistant SAB, vancomycin susceptibilities were confirmed using standard dilution methods. RESULTS: Eighty-four patients with pSAB and 152 patients with nonpersistent SAB were included in the analysis. Methicillin resistance (odds ratio [OR], 5.22; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.63-10.38), intravascular catheter or other foreign body use (OR, 2.37; 95% CI, 1.11-3.96), chronic renal failure (OR, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.09-3.96), more than 2 sites of infection (OR, 3.31; 95% CI, 1.17-9.38), and infective endocarditis (OR, 10.30; 95% CI, 2.98-35.64) were independently associated with pSAB. The mean time to device removal was significantly longer in patients with pSAB than in patients with nonpersistent SAB (4.94 vs 1.64 days; P < .01). There was no evidence of reduced vancomycin susceptibility among persistent methicillin-resistant S aureus isolates. Clinical outcomes were significantly worse among patients with pSAB. CONCLUSIONS: Many hospitalized patients may be at risk for pSAB. Aggressive attempts to minimize the risk of complications and poor outcomes associated with pSAB, such as early device removal, should be encouraged.

National trends in Staphylococcus aureus infection rates: impact on economic burden and mortality over a 6-year period (1998-2003).

BACKGROUND: We evaluated historical trends in the Staphylococcus aureus infection rate, economic burden, and mortality in US hospitals from 1998 through 2003. METHODS: The Nationwide Inpatient Sample was used to assess trends over time of S. aureus infection during 1998-2003. Historical trends were determined for 5 strata of hospital stays, including all inpatient stays, surgical procedure stays, invasive cardiovascular surgical stays, invasive orthopedic surgical stays, and invasive neurosurgical stays. RESULTS: During the 6-year study period from 1998 through 2003, the rate of S. aureus infection increased significantly for all inpatient stays (from 0.74% to 1.0%; annual percentage change (APC), 7.1%; P=.004), surgical stays (from 0.90% to 1.3%; APC, 7.9%; P=.001), and invasive orthopedic surgical stays (from 1.2% to 1.8%; APC, 9.3%; P<.001). For invasive neurosurgical stays, the rate of S. aureus infection did not change from 1998 to 2000 but increased at an annual rate of 11.0% from 2000 to 2003 (from 1.4% to 1.8%; P=.034). The total economic burden of S. aureus infection for hospitals also increased significantly for all stay types, with the annual percentage increase ranging from 9.2% to 17.9% (P<.05 for all). In 2003, the total economic burden of S. aureus infection was estimated to be $14.5 billion for all inpatient stays and $12.3 billion for surgical patient stays. However, there were significant decreases in the risk of S. aureus-related in-hospital mortality from 1998 to 2003 for all inpatient stays (from 7.1% to 5.6%; APC, -4.6%; P=.001) and for surgical stays (from 7.1% to 5.5%; APC, -4.6%; P=.002). CONCLUSIONS: The inpatient S. aureus infection rate and economic burden of S. aureus infections for US hospitals increased substantially from 1998 to 2003, whereas the in-hospital mortality rate decreased.

Discriminating inhalational anthrax from community-acquired pneumonia using chest radiograph findings and a clinical algorithm.

BACKGROUND: Limiting the effects of a large-scale bioterrorist anthrax attack will require rapid and accurate detection of the earliest victims. We undertook this study to improve physicians' ability to rapidly detect inhalational anthrax victims. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study to compare chest radiograph findings from 47 patients from historical inhalational anthrax cases and 188 community-acquired pneumonia control subjects. We then used classification tree analyses to derive an algorithm of chest radiograph findings and clinical characteristics that accurately and explicitly discriminated between inhalational anthrax and community-acquired pneumonia. RESULTS: Twenty-two of the 47 patients from historical inhalational anthrax cases (46.8%) had reported chest radiograph findings. All 22 case patients (100%) had mediastinal widening, pleural effusion, or both. However, 16 case patients (72.7%) also had infiltrates. In comparison, all 188 community-acquired control subjects had reported chest radiographs. Of these, 127 control subjects (67.6%) had infiltrates, 43 control subjects (22.9%) had pleural effusions, and 15 control subjects (8.0%) had mediastinal widening. A derived algorithm with three predictor variables (chest radiograph finding of mediastinal widening, altered mental status, and elevated hematocrit) is 100% sensitive (95% confidence interval [CI], 73.5 to 100) and 98.3% specific (95% CI, 95.1 to 99.6). The derivation process used 12 patients with inhalational anthrax and 177 control subjects with community-acquired pneumonia who had information available for all three variables. CONCLUSIONS: There are significant chest radiograph differences between inhalational anthrax and community-acquired pneumonia, but none of the chest radiograph findings are both highly sensitive and highly specific. The derived clinical algorithm can improve physicians' ability to discriminate inhalational anthrax from community-acquired pneumonia, but its utility is limited to previously healthy individuals and its accuracy may be limited by missing values.

Legislative mandates for use of active surveillance cultures to screen for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant enterococci: position statement from the Joint SHEA and APIC Task Force.

Legislation aimed at controlling antimicrobial-resistant pathogens through the use of active surveillance cultures to screen hospitalized patients has been introduced in at least 2 US states. In response to the proposed legislation, the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Association of Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC) have developed this joint position statement. Both organizations are dedicated to combating healthcare-associated infections with a wide array of methods, including the use of active surveillance cultures in appropriate circumstances. This position statement reviews the proposed legislation and the rationale for use of active surveillance cultures, examines the scientific evidence supporting the use of this strategy, and discusses a number of unresolved issues surrounding legislation mandating use of active surveillance cultures. The following 5 consensus points are offered. (1) Although reducing the burden of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), is of preeminent importance, APIC and SHEA do not support legislation to mandate use of active surveillance cultures to screen for MRSA, VRE, or other antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. (2) SHEA and APIC support the continued development, validation, and application of efficacious and cost-effective strategies for the prevention of infections caused by MRSA, VRE, and other antimicrobial-resistant and antimicrobial-susceptible pathogens. (3) APIC and SHEA welcome efforts by healthcare consumers, together with private, local, state, and federal policy makers, to focus attention on and formulate solutions for the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance and healthcare-associated infections. (4) SHEA and APIC support ongoing additional research to determine and optimize the appropriateness, utility, feasibility, and cost-effectiveness of using active surveillance cultures to screen both lower-risk and high-risk populations. (5) APIC and SHEA support stronger collaboration between state and local public health authorities and institutional infection prevention and control experts.

Legislative mandates for use of active surveillance cultures to screen for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant enterococci: Position statement from the Joint SHEA and APIC Task Force.

Legislation aimed at controlling antimicrobial-resistant pathogens through the use of active surveillance cultures to screen hospitalized patients has been introduced in at least 2 US states. In response to the proposed legislation, the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc., (APIC) have developed this joint position statement. Both organizations are dedicated to combating health care-associated infections with a wide array of methods, including the use of active surveillance cultures in appropriate circumstances. This position statement reviews the proposed legislation and the rationale for use of active surveillance cultures, examines the scientific evidence supporting the use of this strategy, and discusses a number of unresolved issues surrounding legislation mandating use of active surveillance cultures. The following 5 consensus points are offered. (1) Although reducing the burden of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), is of preeminent importance, the APIC and the SHEA do not support legislation to mandate use of active surveillance cultures to screen for MRSA, VRE, or other antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. (2) The SHEA and the APIC support the continued development, validation, and application of efficacious and cost-effective strategies for the prevention of infections caused by MRSA, VRE, and other antimicrobial-resistant and antimicrobial-susceptible pathogens. (3) The APIC and the SHEA welcome efforts by health care consumers, together with private, local, state, and federal policy makers, to focus attention on and formulate solutions for the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance and health care-associated infections. (4) The SHEA and the APIC support ongoing additional research to determine and optimize the appropriateness, utility, feasibility, and cost-effectiveness of using active surveillance cultures to screen both lower-risk and high-risk populations. (5) The APIC and the SHEA support stronger collaboration between state and local public health authorities and institutional infection prevention and control experts.

Serum piperacillin/tazobactam pharmacokinetics in a morbidly obese individual.

OBJECTIVE: To report pharmacokinetic alterations and optimal dosing of piperacillin/tazobactam in an obese patient. CASE SUMMARY: A 39-year-old morbidly obese (weight 167 kg, body mass index 50 kg/m2) man was treated with piperacillin/tazobactam 3.375 g every 4 hours for recurrent cellulitis. The wound culture grew Groups A and B Streptococcus and rare Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Blood samples were obtained at steady-state from a peripheral venous catheter at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours after the start of the infusion. Population pharmacokinetics were generated from a previously published data set. The serum concentrations of piperacillin/tazobactam obtained in the patient were compared with the 95% confidence interval from the representative population. Pharmacokinetic parameters such as maximal serum concentration, minimal serum concentration, average steady-state concentration, half-life, elimination rate constant, volume of distribution (V(d)), clearance, area under the curve at steadystate, and percent of time greater than the minimum inhibitory concentration (%t>MIC) were calculated and qualitatively compared between the sample and the population. DISCUSSION: Substantial differences were noted in both the absolute values at the times of sample collection and the overall concentration-versus-time profile of both compounds. The morbidly obese individual compared with the population demonstrated a reduced average serum steady-state concentration: 39.8 mg/L versus 123.6 mg/L, an increased V(d): 54.3 L versus 12.7 L, and an increased half-life: 1.4 hours versus 0.6 hours, respectively. The %t >MIC of piperacillin for the patient, assuming MICs of 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 mg/L, was 100%, 100%, 90.9%, 55.4%, 19.9%, 0%, and 0%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Pathogens with elevated MICs may require altered dosing schemes with piperacillin/tazobactam. Future studies are warranted to assess increased dosages, more frequent dosing intervals, or continuous infusion dosing schemes for obese individuals with serious infections.

Risk factors and outcomes associated with non-Enterococcus faecalis, non-Enterococcus faecium enterococcal bacteremia.

OBJECTIVES: To compare risk factors, clinical features, and outcomes in patients with Enterococcus avium, Enterococcus casseliflavus, Enterococcus durans, Enterococcus gallinarum, and Enterococcus mundtii bacteremia (cases) with those in patients with Enterococcus faecalis bacteremia (controls). DESIGN: A retrospective case-control study. SETTING: A 725-bed, university-affiliated, academic medical center. PATIENTS: The clinical microbiology database at Northwestern Memorial Hospital from January 1994 to May 2003 was searched to identify cases; each case was matched to one control on the basis of date of admission. RESULTS: Thirty-three cases were identified and matched with 33 controls. The mean duration of hospital stay was longer (29.7 vs 17.2 days; P = .03) and the mean time to acquisition of bacteremia was greater (16.5 vs 6.3 days; P = .003) for cases than controls. Cases were more likely to have underlying hematologic malignancies (P < .001), to have been treated with corticosteroids (P = .02), and to be neutropenic (P = .003). Controls were more likely to have an indwelling bladder catheter (P = .01), and cases were more likely to have the gastrointestinal tract as a source of infection (P = .007) and to have concurrent cholangitis (P = .002). There were no differences in severity of illness or in mortality rates. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with patients with E. faecalis bacteremia, patients with non-E. faecalis, non-Enterococcus faecium enterococcal bacteremia were more likely to have a hematologic malignancy, prior treatment with corticosteroids, neutropenia, and cholangitis; longer duration of hospital stay was also identified as a clinical feature. However, non-E. faecalis, non-E. faecium species are not associated with any differences in mortality.