DUB'ling down uncovers an X-linked vulnerability in Alzheimer's disease.

Although women are at higher risk for Alzheimer's disease and other tauopathies, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In this issue of Cell, Yan et al. show that aberrantly high activity of X-linked USP11 deubiquitinase in women impairs clearance of tau, the principal component of neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease.

H2S signalling through protein sulfhydration and beyond.

Hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) has recently emerged as a mammalian gaseous messenger molecule, akin to nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. H(2)S is predominantly formed from Cys or its derivatives by the enzymes cystathionine ß-synthase and cystathionine γ-lyase. One of the mechanisms by which H(2)S signals is by sulfhydration of reactive Cys residues in target proteins. Although analogous to protein nitrosylation, sulfhydration is substantially more prevalent and usually increases the catalytic activity of targeted proteins. Physiological actions of sulfhydration include the regulation of inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum stress signalling as well as of vascular tension.

Redox imbalance links COVID-19 and myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome.

Although most patients recover from acute COVID-19, some experience postacute sequelae of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection (PASC). One subgroup of PASC is a syndrome called "long COVID-19," reminiscent of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). ME/CFS is a debilitating condition, often triggered by viral and bacterial infections, leading to years-long debilitating symptoms including profound fatigue, postexertional malaise, unrefreshing sleep, cognitive deficits, and orthostatic intolerance. Some are skeptical that either ME/CFS or long COVID-19 involves underlying biological abnormalities. However, in this review, we summarize the evidence that people with acute COVID-19 and with ME/CFS have biological abnormalities including redox imbalance, systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation, an impaired ability to generate adenosine triphosphate, and a general hypometabolic state. These phenomena have not yet been well studied in people with long COVID-19, and each of them has been reported in other diseases as well, particularly neurological diseases. We also examine the bidirectional relationship between redox imbalance, inflammation, energy metabolic deficits, and a hypometabolic state. We speculate as to what may be causing these abnormalities. Thus, understanding the molecular underpinnings of both PASC and ME/CFS may lead to the development of novel therapeutics.

Hydrogen sulfide is neuroprotective in Alzheimer's disease by sulfhydrating GSK3ß and inhibiting Tau hyperphosphorylation.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia and neurodegeneration in the elderly, is characterized by deterioration of memory and executive and motor functions. Neuropathologic hallmarks of AD include neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), paired helical filaments, and amyloid plaques. Mutations in the microtubule-associated protein Tau, a major component of the NFTs, cause its hyperphosphorylation in AD. We have shown that signaling by the gaseous molecule hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is dysregulated during aging. H2S signals via a posttranslational modification termed sulfhydration/persulfidation, which participates in diverse cellular processes. Here we show that cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), the biosynthetic enzyme for H2S, binds wild type Tau, which enhances its catalytic activity. By contrast, CSE fails to bind Tau P301L, a mutant that is present in the 3xTg-AD mouse model of AD. We further show that CSE is depleted in 3xTg-AD mice as well as in human AD brains, and that H2S prevents hyperphosphorylation of Tau by sulfhydrating its kinase, glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß). Finally, we demonstrate that sulfhydration is diminished in AD, while administering the H2S donor sodium GYY4137 (NaGYY) to 3xTg-AD mice ameliorates motor and cognitive deficits in AD.

Histone H2AX promotes neuronal health by controlling mitochondrial homeostasis.

Phosphorylation of histone H2AX is a major contributor to efficient DNA repair. We recently reported neurobehavioral deficits in mice lacking H2AX. Here we establish that this neural failure stems from impairment of mitochondrial function and repression of the mitochondrial biogenesis gene PGC-1α. H2AX loss leads to reduced levels of the major subunits of the mitochondrial respiratory complexes in mouse embryonic fibroblasts and in the striatum, a brain region particularly vulnerable to mitochondrial damage. These defects are substantiated by disruption of the mitochondrial shape in H2AX mutant cells. Ectopic expression of PGC-1α restores mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation complexes and mitigates cell death. H2AX knockout mice display increased neuronal death in the brain when challenged with 3-nitropronionic acid, which targets mitochondria. This study establishes a role for H2AX in mitochondrial homeostasis associated with neuroprotection.

The glutathione cycle shapes synaptic glutamate activity.

Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter, present at the bulk of cortical synapses, and participating in many physiologic and pathologic processes ranging from learning and memory to stroke. The tripeptide, glutathione, is one-third glutamate and present at up to low millimolar intracellular concentrations in brain, mediating antioxidant defenses and drug detoxification. Because of the substantial amounts of brain glutathione and its rapid turnover under homeostatic control, we hypothesized that glutathione is a relevant reservoir of glutamate and could influence synaptic excitability. We find that drugs that inhibit generation of glutamate by the glutathione cycle elicit decreases in cytosolic glutamate and decreased miniature excitatory postsynaptic potential (mEPSC) frequency. In contrast, pharmacologically decreasing the biosynthesis of glutathione leads to increases in cytosolic glutamate and enhanced mEPSC frequency. The glutathione cycle can compensate for decreased excitatory neurotransmission when the glutamate-glutamine shuttle is inhibited. Glutathione may be a physiologic reservoir of glutamate neurotransmitter.

Golgi stress response reprograms cysteine metabolism to confer cytoprotection in Huntington's disease.

Golgi stress response is emerging as a physiologic process of comparable importance to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondrial stress responses. However, unlike ER stress, the identity of the signal transduction pathway involved in the Golgi stress response has been elusive. We show that the Golgi stressor monensin acts via the PKR-like ER kinase/Activating Transcription Factor 4 pathway. ATF4 is the master regulator of amino acid metabolism, which is induced during amino acid depletion and other forms of stress. One of the genes regulated by ATF4 is the biosynthetic enzyme for cysteine, cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), which also plays central roles in maintenance of redox homeostasis. Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disorder, is associated with disrupted cysteine metabolism caused by depletion of CSE leading to abnormal redox balance and stress response. Thus, restoring CSE function and cysteine disposition may be beneficial in HD. Accordingly, we harnessed the monensin-ATF4-signaling cascade to stimulate CSE expression by preconditioning cells with monensin, which restores cysteine metabolism and an optimal stress response in HD. These findings have implications for treatment of HD and other diseases associated with redox imbalance and dysregulated ATF4 signaling.

Cystathionine γ-lyase deficiency mediates neurodegeneration in Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease is an autosomal dominant disease associated with a mutation in the gene encoding huntingtin (Htt) leading to expanded polyglutamine repeats of mutant Htt (mHtt) that elicit oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, and motor and behavioural changes. Huntington's disease is characterized by highly selective and profound damage to the corpus striatum, which regulates motor function. Striatal selectivity of Huntington's disease may reflect the striatally selective small G protein Rhes binding to mHtt and enhancing its neurotoxicity. Specific molecular mechanisms by which mHtt elicits neurodegeneration have been hard to determine. Here we show a major depletion of cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), the biosynthetic enzyme for cysteine, in Huntington's disease tissues, which may mediate Huntington's disease pathophysiology. The defect occurs at the transcriptional level and seems to reflect influences of mHtt on specificity protein 1, a transcriptional activator for CSE. Consistent with the notion of loss of CSE as a pathogenic mechanism, supplementation with cysteine reverses abnormalities in cultures of Huntington's disease tissues and in intact mouse models of Huntington's disease, suggesting therapeutic potential.

Hydrogen sulfide-linked sulfhydration of NF-κB mediates its antiapoptotic actions.

Nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) is an antiapoptotic transcription factor. We show that the antiapoptotic actions of NF-κB are mediated by hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) synthesized by cystathionine gamma-lyase (CSE). TNF-α treatment triples H(2)S generation by stimulating binding of SP1 to the CSE promoter. H(2)S generated by CSE stimulates DNA binding and gene activation of NF-κB, processes that are abolished in CSE-deleted mice. As CSE deletion leads to decreased glutathione levels, resultant oxidative stress may contribute to alterations in CSE mutant mice. H(2)S acts by sulfhydrating the p65 subunit of NF-κB at cysteine-38, which promotes its binding to the coactivator ribosomal protein S3 (RPS3). Sulfhydration of p65 predominates early after TNF-α treatment, then declines and is succeeded by a reciprocal enhancement of p65 nitrosylation. In CSE mutant mice, antiapoptotic influences of NF-κB are markedly diminished. Thus, sulfhydration of NF-κB appears to be a physiologic determinant of its antiapoptotic transcriptional activity.

H2S: A Novel Gasotransmitter that Signals by Sulfhydration.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a member of the growing family of gasotransmitters. Once regarded as a noxious molecule predominantly present in the atmosphere, H2S is now known to be synthesized endogenously in mammals. H2S participates in a myriad of physiological processes ranging from regulation of blood pressure to neuroprotection. Its chemical nature precludes H2S from being stored in vesicles and acting on receptor proteins in the fashion of other chemical messengers. Thus, novel cellular mechanisms have evolved to mediate its effects. This review focuses on sulfhydration (or persulfidation), which appears to be the principal post-translational modification elicited by H2S.

Transcriptional control of amino acid homeostasis is disrupted in Huntington's disease.

Disturbances in amino acid metabolism, which have been observed in Huntington's disease (HD), may account for the profound inanition of HD patients. HD is triggered by an expansion of polyglutamine repeats in the protein huntingtin (Htt), impacting diverse cellular processes, ranging from transcriptional regulation to cognitive and motor functions. We show here that the master regulator of amino acid homeostasis, activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), is dysfunctional in HD because of oxidative stress contributed by aberrant cysteine biosynthesis and transport. Consistent with these observations, antioxidant supplementation reverses the disordered ATF4 response to nutrient stress. Our findings establish a molecular link between amino acid disposition and oxidative stress leading to cytotoxicity. This signaling cascade may be relevant to other diseases involving redox imbalance and deficits in amino acid metabolism.

Allele-specific regulation of mutant Huntingtin by Wig1, a downstream target of p53.

p53 has been implicated in the pathophysiology of Huntington's disease (HD). Nonetheless, the molecular mechanism of how p53 may play a unique role in the pathology remains elusive. To address this question at the molecular and cellular biology levels, we initially screened differentially expressed molecules specifically dependent on p53 in a HD animal model. Among the candidate molecules, wild-type p53-induced gene 1 (Wig1) is markedly upregulated in the cerebral cortex of HD patients. Wig1 preferentially upregulates the level of mutant Huntingtin (Htt) compared with wild-type Htt. This allele-specific characteristic of Wig1 is likely to be explained by higher affinity binding to mutant Htt transcripts than normal counterpart for the stabilization. Knockdown of Wig1 level significantly ameliorates mutant Htt-elicited cytotoxicity and aggregate formation. Together, we propose that Wig1, a key p53 downstream molecule in HD condition, play an important role in stabilizing mutant Htt mRNA and thereby accelerating HD pathology in the mHtt-p53-Wig1 positive feedback manner.

Huntington's disease: Neural dysfunction linked to inositol polyphosphate multikinase.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by a glutamine repeat expansion in mutant huntingtin (mHtt). Despite the known genetic cause of HD, the pathophysiology of this disease remains to be elucidated. Inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK) is an enzyme that displays soluble inositol phosphate kinase activity, lipid kinase activity, and various noncatalytic interactions. We report a severe loss of IPMK in the striatum of HD patients and in several cellular and animal models of the disease. This depletion reflects mHtt-induced impairment of COUP-TF-interacting protein 2 (Ctip2), a striatal-enriched transcription factor for IPMK, as well as alterations in IPMK protein stability. IPMK overexpression reverses the metabolic activity deficit in a cell model of HD. IPMK depletion appears to mediate neural dysfunction, because intrastriatal delivery of IPMK abates the progression of motor abnormalities and rescues striatal pathology in transgenic murine models of HD.

Inositol polyphosphate multikinase is a transcriptional coactivator required for immediate early gene induction.

Profound induction of immediate early genes (IEGs) by neural activation is a critical determinant for plasticity in the brain, but intervening molecular signals are not well characterized. We demonstrate that inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK) acts noncatalytically as a transcriptional coactivator to mediate induction of numerous IEGs. IEG induction by electroconvulsive stimulation is virtually abolished in the brains of IPMK-deleted mice, which also display deficits in spatial memory. Neural activity stimulates binding of IPMK to the histone acetyltransferase CBP and enhances its recruitment to IEG promoters. Interestingly, IPMK regulation of CBP recruitment and IEG induction does not require its catalytic activities. Dominant-negative constructs, which prevent IPMK-CBP binding, substantially decrease IEG induction. As IPMK is ubiquitously expressed, its epigenetic regulation of IEGs may influence diverse nonneural and neural biologic processes.

Dexras1 mediates glucocorticoid-associated adipogenesis and diet-induced obesity.

Adipogenesis, the conversion of precursor cells into adipocytes, is associated with obesity and is mediated by glucocorticoids acting via hitherto poorly characterized mechanisms. Dexras1 is a small G protein of the Ras family discovered on the basis of its marked induction by the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone. We show that Dexras1 mediates adipogenesis and diet-induced obesity. Adipogenic differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells is abolished with Dexras1 depletion, whereas overexpression of Dexras1 elicits adipogenesis. Adipogenesis is markedly reduced in mouse embryonic fibroblasts from Dexras1-deleted mice, whereas adiposity and diet-induced weight gain are diminished in the mutant mice.

Serine racemase regulated by binding to stargazin and PSD-95: potential N-methyl-D-aspartate-α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (NMDA-AMPA) glutamate neurotransmission cross-talk.

D-Serine, an endogenous co-agonist for the glycine site of the synaptic NMDA glutamate receptor, regulates synaptic plasticity and is implicated in schizophrenia. Serine racemase (SR) is the enzyme that converts L-serine to D-serine. In this study, we demonstrate that SR interacts with the synaptic proteins, postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) and stargazin, forming a ternary complex. SR binds to the PDZ3 domain of PSD-95 through the PDZ domain ligand at its C terminus. SR also binds to the C terminus of stargazin, which facilitates the cell membrane localization of SR and inhibits its activity. AMPA receptor activation internalizes SR and disrupts its interaction with stargazin, therefore derepressing SR activity, leading to more D-serine production and potentially facilitating NMDA receptor activation. These interactions regulate the enzymatic activity as well as the intracellular localization of SR, potentially coupling the activities of NMDA and AMPA receptors. This shuttling of a neurotransmitter synthesizing enzyme between two receptors appears to be a novel mode of synaptic regulation.

Neuroprotective Roles of the Biliverdin Reductase-A/Bilirubin Axis in the Brain.

Biliverdin reductase-A (BVRA) is a multi-functional enzyme with a multitude of important roles in physiologic redox homeostasis. Classically, BVRA is well known for converting the heme metabolite biliverdin to bilirubin, which is a potent antioxidant in both the periphery and the brain. However, BVRA additionally participates in many neuroprotective signaling cascades in the brain that preserve cognition. Here, we review the neuroprotective roles of BVRA and bilirubin in the brain, which together constitute a BVRA/bilirubin axis that influences healthy aging and cognitive function.

Biliverdin Reductase-A integrates insulin signaling with mitochondrial metabolism through phosphorylation of GSK3ß.

Brain insulin resistance links the failure of energy metabolism with cognitive decline in both type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2D) and Alzheimer's disease (AD), although the molecular changes preceding overt brain insulin resistance remain unexplored. Abnormal biliverdin reductase-A (BVR-A) levels were observed in both T2D and AD and were associated with insulin resistance. Here, we demonstrate that reduced BVR-A levels alter insulin signaling and mitochondrial bioenergetics in the brain. Loss of BVR-A leads to IRS1 hyper-activation but dysregulates Akt-GSK3ß complex in response to insulin, hindering the accumulation of pGSK3ßS9 into the mitochondria. This event impairs oxidative phosphorylation and fosters the activation of the mitochondrial Unfolded Protein Response (UPRmt). Remarkably, we unveil that BVR-A is required to shuttle pGSK3ßS9 into the mitochondria. Our data sheds light on the intricate interplay between insulin signaling and mitochondrial metabolism in the brain unraveling potential targets for mitigating the development of brain insulin resistance and neurodegeneration.

Protective Roles of Hydrogen Sulfide in Alzheimer's Disease and Traumatic Brain Injury.

The gaseous signaling molecule hydrogen sulfide (H2S) critically modulates a plethora of physiological processes across evolutionary boundaries. These include responses to stress and other neuromodulatory effects that are typically dysregulated in aging, disease, and injury. H2S has a particularly prominent role in modulating neuronal health and survival under both normal and pathologic conditions. Although toxic and even fatal at very high concentrations, emerging evidence has also revealed a pronounced neuroprotective role for lower doses of endogenously generated or exogenously administered H2S. Unlike traditional neurotransmitters, H2S is a gas and, therefore, is unable to be stored in vesicles for targeted delivery. Instead, it exerts its physiologic effects through the persulfidation/sulfhydration of target proteins on reactive cysteine residues. Here, we review the latest discoveries on the neuroprotective roles of H2S in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and traumatic brain injury, which is one the greatest risk factors for AD.

Hydrogen sulfide: Recent development of its dual donors and hybrid drugs.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) is an important gaseous signalling molecule known to be critically involved in regulating cellular redox homeostasis. As the beneficial and therapeutic effects of H2 S in pathophysiology, such as in cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, have emerged, so too has the drive for the development of H2 S-releasing compounds (aka donors) and their therapeutic applications. Most reported donor compounds singularly release H2 S through biocompatible triggers. An emerging area in the field is the development of compounds that can co-deliver H2 S with other drugs or biologically relevant species, such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS, respectively). These H2 S-based dual donors and hybrid drugs are expected to offset negative side effects from individual treatments or achieve synergistic effects rendering them more clinically effective. Additionally, considering that molecules exist and interact physiologically, dual donors may more accurately mimic biological systems as compared to single donors and allow for the elucidation of fundamental chemistry and biology. This review focuses on the recent advances in the development of H2 S-based dual donors and hybrid drugs along with their design principles and synergistic effects.