MC3/SAINT-O-Somes, a novel liposomal delivery system for efficient and safe delivery of siRNA into endothelial cells.

Increased understanding of chronic inflammatory diseases and the role of endothelial cell (EC) activation herein, have urged interest in sophisticated strategies to therapeutically intervene in activated EC to treat these diseases. Liposome-mediated delivery of therapeutic siRNA in inflammation-activated EC is such a strategy. In this study, we describe the design and characterisation of two liposomal siRNA delivery systems formulated with the cationic MC3 lipid or MC3/SAINT mixed lipids, referred to as MC3-O-Somes (MOS) and MC3/SAINT-O-Somes (MSS). The two formulations showed comparable physicochemical properties, except for better siRNA encapsulation efficiency in the MSS formulation. Antibody-mediated VCAM-1 targeting (AbVCAM-1) increased the association of the targeted MOS and MSS with activated EC, although the targeted MOS showed a significantly higher VCAM-1 specific association than the targeted MSS. AbVCAM-1 MSS containing RelA siRNA achieved significant downregulation of RelA expression, while AbVCAM-1 MOS containing RelA siRNA did not downregulate RelA expression in activated EC. Additionally, AbVCAM-1 MSS containing RelA siRNA showed low cytotoxicity in EC and at the same time prohibited endothelial inflammatory activation by reducing expression of cell adhesion molecules. The AbVCAM-1 MSS formulation is a novel siRNA delivery system based on a combination of the cationic lipids MC3 and SAINT, that shows good physicochemical characteristics, enhanced endothelial cell association, improved transfection activity, low toxicity and significant anti-inflammatory effect, thereby complying with the requirements for future in vivo investigations.

Inhibiting Cholesterol Absorption During Lactation Programs Future Intestinal Absorption of Cholesterol in Adult Mice.

In nematodes, the intestine senses and integrates early life dietary cues that lead to lifelong epigenetic adaptations to a perceived nutritional environment-it is not clear whether this process occurs in mammals. We aimed to establish a mouse model of reduced dietary cholesterol availability from maternal milk and investigate the consequences of decreased milk cholesterol availability, early in life, on the metabolism of cholesterol in adult mice. We blocked intestinal absorption of cholesterol in milk fed to newborn mice by supplementing the food of dams (for 3 weeks between birth and weaning) with ezetimibe, which is secreted into milk. Ezetimibe interacts with the intestinal cholesterol absorption transporter NPC1l1 to block cholesterol uptake into enterocytes. Characterization of these offspring at 24 weeks of age showed a 27% decrease in cholesterol absorption (P < .001) and reduced levels of Npc1l1 messenger RNA and protein, but not other cholesterol transporters, in the proximal small intestine. We observed increased histone H3K9me3 methylation at positions -423 to -607 of the proximal Npc1l1 promoter in small intestine tissues from 24-week-old offspring fed ezetimibe during lactation, compared with controls. These findings show that the early postnatal mammalian intestine functions as an environmental sensor of nutritional conditions, responding to conditions such as low cholesterol levels by epigenetic modifications of genes. Further studies are needed to determine how decreased sterol absorption for a defined period might activate epigenetic regulators; the findings of our study might have implications for human infant nutrition and understanding and preventing cardiometabolic disease.

Early micronutrient supplementation protects against early stress-induced cognitive impairments.

Early-life stress (ES) impairs cognition later in life. Because ES prevention is problematic, intervention is needed, yet the mechanisms that underlie ES remain largely unknown. So far, the role of early nutrition in brain programming has been largely ignored. Here, we demonstrate that essential 1-carbon metabolism-associated micronutrients (1-CMAMs; i.e., methionine and B vitamins) early in life are crucial in programming later cognition by ES. ES was induced in male C57Bl/6 mice from postnatal d (P)2-9. 1-CMAM levels were measured centrally and peripherally by using liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy. Next, we supplemented the maternal diet with 1-CMAM only during the ES period and studied cognitive, neuroendocrine, neurogenic, transcriptional, and epigenetic changes in adult offspring. We demonstrate that ES specifically reduces methionine in offspring plasma and brain. Of note, dietary 1-CMAM enrichment during P2-9 restored methionine levels and rescued ES-induced adult cognitive impairments. Beneficial effects of this early dietary enrichment were associated with prevention of the ES-induced rise in corticosterone and adrenal gland hypertrophy did not involve changes in maternal care, hippocampal volume, neurogenesis, or global/Nr3c1-specific DNA methylation. In summary, nutrition is important in brain programming by ES. A short, early supplementation with essential micronutrients can already prevent lasting effects of ES. This concept opens new avenues for nutritional intervention.-Naninck, E. F. G., Oosterink, J. E., Yam, K.-Y., de Vries, L. P., Schierbeek, H., van Goudoever, J. B., Verkaik-Schakel, R.-N., Plantinga, J. A., Plosch, T., Lucassen, P. J., Korosi, A. Early micronutrient supplementation protects against early stress-induced cognitive impairments.

Differential effects of oleate on vascular endothelial and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells reveal its toxic features in vitro.

Several fatty acids, in particular saturated fatty acids like palmitic acid, cause lipotoxicity in the context of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease . Unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. oleic acid) protect against lipotoxicity in hepatocytes. However, the effect of oleic acid on other liver cell types, in particular liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), is unknown. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) are often used as a substitute for LSECs, however, because of the unique phenotype of LSECs, HUVECs cannot represent the same biological features as LSECs. In this study, we investigate the effects of oleate and palmitate (the sodium salts of oleic acid and palmitic acid) on primary rat LSECs in comparison to their effects on HUVECs. Oleate induces necrotic cell death in LSECs, but not in HUVECs. Necrotic cell death of LSECs can be prevented by supplementation of 2-stearoylglycerol, which promotes cellular triglyceride (TG) synthesis. Repressing TG synthesis, by knocking down DGAT1 renders HUVECs sensitive to oleate-induced necrotic death. Mechanistically, oleate causes a sharp drop of intracellular ATP level and impairs mitochondrial respiration in LSECs. The combination of oleate and palmitate reverses the toxic effect of oleate in both LSECs and HUVECs. These results indicate that oleate is toxic and its toxicity can be attenuated by stimulating TG synthesis. The toxicity of oleate is characterized by mitochondrial dysfunction and necrotic cell death. Moreover, HUVECs are not suitable as a substitute model for LSECs.

Development of a Combined Lipid-Based Nanoparticle Formulation for Enhanced siRNA Delivery to Vascular Endothelial Cells.

Low transfection efficiency in endothelial cells (EC) is still a bottleneck for the majority of siRNA-based vascular delivery approaches. In this work, we developed a lipid-based nanoparticle (LNP) formulation based on a combination of a permanently charged cationic lipid-DOTAP and a conditionally ionized cationic lipid-MC3 (DOTAP/MC3) for the enhanced delivery of siRNA into EC. Compared with a single DOTAP or MC3-based benchmark LNP, we demonstrated that the DOTAP/MC3 LNP formulation shows the best transfection efficiency both in primary EC in vitro and in endothelium in zebrafish. The high transfection activity of the DOTAP/MC3 LNP formulation is achieved by a combination of improved endothelial association mediated by DOTAP and MC3-triggered efficient siRNA intracellular release in EC. Furthermore, AbVCAM-1-coupled DOTAP/MC3 LNP-mediated siRNARelA transfection showed pronounced anti-inflammatory effects in inflammatory-activated primary EC by effectively blocking the NF-κB pathway. In conclusion, the combination of permanent and ionizable cationic lipids in LNP formulation provides an effective endothelial cell delivery of siRNA.

Pharmacological inhibition of protein tyrosine kinases axl and fyn reduces TNF-α-induced endothelial inflammatory activation in vitro.

Major surgery induces systemic inflammation leading to pro-inflammatory activation of endothelial cells. Endothelial inflammation is one of the drivers of postoperative organ damage, including acute kidney injury Tumour Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-α) is an important component of surgery-induced pro-inflammatory activation of endothelial cells. Kinases, the backbone of signalling cascades, can be targeted by pharmacological inhibition. This is a promising treatment option to interfere with excessive endothelial inflammation. In this study, we identified activated kinases as potential therapeutic targets. These targets were pharmacologically inhibited to reduce TNF-α-induced pro-inflammatory signalling in endothelial cells. Kinome profiling using PamChip arrays identified 64 protein tyrosine kinases and 88 serine-threonine kinases, the activity of which was determined at various timepoints (5-240 min) following stimulation with 10 ng/ml TNF-α in Human umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro. The PTKs Axl and Fyn were selected based on high kinase activity profiles. Co-localisation experiments with the endothelial-specific protein CD31 showed Axl expression in endothelial cells of glomeruli and Fyn in arterioles and glomeruli of both control and TNF-α-exposed mice. Pharmacological inhibition with Axl inhibitor BMS-777607 and Fyn inhibitor PP2 significantly reduced TNF-α-induced pro-inflammatory activation of E-selectin, VCAM-1, ICAM-1, IL-6 and IL-8 at mRNA and VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and IL-6 at protein level in HUVEC in vitro. Upon pharmacological inhibition with each inhibitor, leukocyte adhesion to HUVEC was also significantly reduced, however to a minor extent. In conclusion, pre-treatment of endothelial cells with kinase inhibitors BMS-777607 and PP2 reduces TNF-α-induced endothelial inflammation in vitro.

Epicardium-derived cells enhance proliferation, cellular maturation and alignment of cardiomyocytes.

During heart development, cells from the proepicardial organ spread over the naked heart tube to form the epicardium. From here, epicardium-derived cells (EPDCs) migrate into the myocardium. EPDCs proved to be indispensable for the formation of the ventricular compact zone and myocardial maturation, by largely unknown mechanisms. In this study we investigated in vitro how EPDCs affect cardiomyocyte proliferation, cellular alignment and contraction, as well as the expression and cellular distribution of proteins involved in myocardial maturation. Embryonic quail EPDCs induced proliferation of neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes. This required cell-cell interactions, as proliferation was not observed in transwell cocultures. Western blot analysis showed elevated levels of electrical and mechanical junctions (connexin43, N-cadherin), sarcomeric proteins (Troponin-I, alpha-actinin), extracellular matrix (collagen I and periostin) in cocultures of EPDCs and cardiomyocytes. Immunohistochemistry indicated more membrane-bound expression of Cx43, N-cadherin, the mechanotransduction molecule focal adhesion kinase, and higher expression of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPase (SERCA2a). Newly developed software for analysis of directionality in immunofluorescent stainings showed a quantitatively determined enhanced cellular alignment of cardiomyocytes. This was functionally related to increased contraction. The in vitro effects of EPDCs on cardiomyocytes were confirmed in three reciprocal in vivo models for EPDC-depletion (chicken and mice) in which downregulation of myocardial N-cadherin, Cx43, and FAK were observed. In conclusion, direct interaction of EPDCs with cardiomyocytes induced proliferation, correct mechanical and electrical coupling of cardiomyocytes, ECM-deposition and concurrent establishment of cellular array. These findings implicate that EPDCs are ideal candidates as adjuvant cells for cardiomyocyte integration during cardiac (stem) cell therapy.

Identification of LPS-Activated Endothelial Subpopulations With Distinct Inflammatory Phenotypes and Regulatory Signaling Mechanisms.

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. Endothelial cells (EC) are actively involved in sepsis-associated (micro)vascular disturbances and subsequent organ dysfunction. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a Gram-negative bacterial product, can activate EC leading to the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules. This process is molecularly regulated by specific receptors and distinct, yet poorly understood intracellular signaling pathways. LPS-induced expression of endothelial adhesion molecules E-selectin and VCAM-1 in mice was previously shown to be organ- and microvascular-specific. Here we report that also within renal microvascular beds the endothelium expresses different extents of E-selectin and VCAM-1. This heterogeneity was recapitulated in vitro in LPS-activated human umbilical vein EC (HUVEC). Within 2 h after LPS exposure, four distinct HUVEC subpopulations were visible by flow cytometric analysis detecting E-selectin and VCAM-1 protein. These encompassed E-selectin-/VCAM-1- (-/-), E-selectin+/VCAM-1- (E-sel+), E-selectin+/VCAM-1+ (+/+), and E-selectin-/VCAM-1+ (VCAM-1+) subpopulations. The formation of subpopulations was a common response of endothelial cells to LPS challenge. Using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) we demonstrated that the +/+ subpopulation also expressed the highest levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. The differences in responsiveness of EC subpopulations could not be explained by differential expression of LPS receptors TLR4 and RIG-I. Functional studies, however, demonstrated that the formation of the E-sel+ subpopulation was mainly TLR4-mediated, while the formation of the +/+ subpopulation was mediated by both TLR4 and RIG-I. Pharmacological blockade of NF-κB and p38 MAPK furthermore revealed a prominent role of their signaling cascades in E-sel+ and +/+ subpopulation formation. In contrast, the VCAM-1+ subpopulation was not controlled by any of these signaling pathways. Noteworthy is the existence of a "quiescent" subpopulation that was devoid of the two adhesion molecules and did not express cytokines or chemokines despite LPS exposure. Summarizing, our findings suggest that LPS activates different signaling mechanisms in EC that drive heterogeneous expression of EC inflammatory molecules. Further characterization of the signaling pathways involved will enhance our understanding of endothelial heterogeneous responses to sepsis related stimuli and enable the future design of effective therapeutic strategies to interfere in these processes to counteract sepsis-associated organ dysfunction.

Leukocyte-Released Mediators in Response to Both Bacterial and Fungal Infections Trigger IFN Pathways, Independent of IL-1 and TNF-α, in Endothelial Cells.

In sepsis, dysregulated immune responses to infections cause damage to the host. Previous studies have attempted to capture pathogen-induced leukocyte responses. However, the impact of mediators released after pathogen-leukocyte interaction on endothelial cells, and how endothelial cell responses vary depending on the pathogen-type is lacking. Here, we comprehensively characterized the transcriptomic responses of human leukocytes and endothelial cells to Gram negative-bacteria, Gram positive-bacteria, and fungi. We showed that whole pathogen lysates induced strong activation of leukocytes but not endothelial cells. Interestingly, the common response of leukocytes to various pathogens converges on endothelial activation. By exposing endothelial cells to leukocyte-released mediators, we observed a strong activation of endothelial cells at both transcription and protein levels. By adding IL-1RA and TNF-α antibody in leukocyte-released mediators before exposing to endothelial cells, we identified specific roles for IL-1 and TNF-α in driving the most, but not all, endothelial activation. We also showed for the first time, activation of interferon response by endothelial cells in response to leukocyte-released mediators, independently from IL-1 and TNF-α pathways. Our study therefore, not only provides pathogen-dependent transcriptional changes in leukocytes and endothelial cells during infections, but also reveals a role for IFN, together with IL1 and TNFα signaling, in mediating leukocyte-endothelial interaction in infections.

Trimethylene carbonate and epsilon-caprolactone based (co)polymer networks: mechanical properties and enzymatic degradation.

High molecular weight trimethylene carbonate (TMC) and epsilon-caprolactone (CL) (co)polymers were synthesized. Melt pressed (co)polymer films were cross-linked by gamma irradiation (25 kGy or 50 kGy) in vacuum, yielding gel fractions of up to 70%. The effects of copolymer composition and irradiation dose on the cytotoxicity, surface properties, degradation behavior, and mechanical and thermal properties of these (co)polymers and networks were investigated. Upon incubation with cell culture medium containing extracts of (co)polymers and networks, human foreskin fibroblasts remained viable. For all (co)polymers and networks, cell viabilities were determined to be higher than 94%. The formed networks were flexible, with elastic moduli ranging from 2.7 to 5.8 MPa. Moreover, these form-stable networks were creep resistant under dynamic conditions. The permanent deformation after 2 h relaxation was as low as 1% after elongating to 50% strain for 20 times. The in vitro enzymatic erosion behavior of these hydrophobic (co)polymers and networks was investigated using aqueous lipase solutions. The erosion rates in lipase solution could be tuned linearly from 0.8 to 45 mg/(cm (2) x day) by varying the TMC to CL ratio and the irradiation dose. The copolymers and networks degraded essentially by a surface erosion mechanism.

Differential Mechanisms of Myocardial Conduction Slowing by Adipose Tissue-Derived Stromal Cells Derived from Different Species.

Stem cell therapy is a promising therapeutic option to treat patients after myocardial infarction. However, the intramyocardial administration of large amounts of stem cells might generate a proarrhythmic substrate. Proarrhythmic effects can be explained by electrotonic and/or paracrine mechanisms. The narrow therapeutic time window for cell therapy and the presence of comorbidities limit the application of autologous cell therapy. The use of allogeneic or xenogeneic stem cells is a potential alternative to autologous cells, but differences in the proarrhythmic effects of adipose-derived stromal cells (ADSCs) across species are unknown. Using microelectrode arrays and microelectrode recordings, we obtained local unipolar electrograms and action potentials from monolayers of neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVMs) that were cocultured with rat, human, or pig ADSCs (rADSCs, hADSCs, pADSCs, respectively). Monolayers of NRVMs were cultured in the respective conditioned medium to investigate paracrine effects. We observed significant conduction slowing in all cardiomyocyte cultures containing ADSCs, independent of species used (p < .01). All cocultures were depolarized compared with controls (p < .01). Only conditioned medium taken from cocultures with pADSCs and applied to NRVM monolayers demonstrated similar electrophysiological changes as the corresponding cocultures. We have shown that independent of species used, ADSCs cause conduction slowing in monolayers of NRVMs. In addition, pADSCs exert conduction slowing mainly by a paracrine effect, whereas the influence on conduction by hADSCs and rADSCs is preferentially by electrotonic interaction. Stem Cells Translational Medicine 2017;6:22-30.

Recombinant human collagen-based microspheres mitigate cardiac conduction slowing induced by adipose tissue-derived stromal cells.

BACKGROUND: Stem cell therapy to improve cardiac function after myocardial infarction is hampered by poor cell retention, while it may also increase the risk of arrhythmias by providing an arrhythmogenic substrate. We previously showed that porcine adipose tissue-derived-stromal cells (pASC) induce conduction slowing through paracrine actions, whereas rat ASC (rASC) and human ASC (hASC) induce conduction slowing by direct coupling. We postulate that biomaterial microspheres mitigate the conduction slowing influence of pASC by interacting with paracrine signaling. AIM: To investigate the modulation of ASC-loaded recombinant human collagen-based microspheres, on the electrophysiological behavior of neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVM). METHOD: Unipolar extracellular electrograms, derived from microelectrode arrays (8x8 electrodes) containing NRVM, co-cultured with ASC or ASC loaded microspheres, were used to determine conduction velocity (CV) and conduction heterogeneity. Conditioned medium (Cme) of (co)cultures was used to assess paracrine mechanisms. RESULTS: Microspheres did not affect CV in control (NRVM) monolayers. In co-cultures of NRVM and rASC, hASC or pASC, CV was lower than in controls (14.4±1.0, 13.0±0.6 and 9.0± 1.0 vs. 19.5±0.5 cm/s respectively, p<0.001). Microspheres loaded with either rASC or hASC still induced conduction slowing compared to controls (13.5±0.4 and 12.6±0.5 cm/s respectively, p<0.001). However, pASC loaded microspheres increased CV of NRVM compared to pASC and NRMV co-cultures (16.3±1.3 cm/s, p< 0.001) and did not differ from controls (p = NS). Cme of pASC reduced CV in control monolayers of NRVM (10.3±1.1 cm/s, p<0.001), similar to Cme derived from pASC-loaded microspheres (11.1±1.7 cm/s, p = 1.0). The presence of microspheres in monolayers of NRVM abolished the CV slowing influence of Cme pASC (15.9±1.0 cm/s, p = NS vs. control). CONCLUSION: The application of recombinant human collagen-based microspheres mitigates indirect paracrine conduction slowing through interference with a secondary autocrine myocardial factor.

Development of recombinant collagen-peptide-based vehicles for delivery of adipose-derived stromal cells.

Stem cell therapy is a promising approach for repair, remodeling and even regenerate tissue of otherwise irreparable damage, such as after myocardial infarction (aMI). A severe limitation of cardiac stem cell therapy is the generally poor retention of administered cells in the target tissue. In tissue repair the main mode of action of adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADSC) is the production of various growth factors, cytokines, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic factors that together augment repair, remodeling, and regeneration. In this experiment, we used recombinant collagen peptide (RCP) with additional integrin-binding motives and different crosslinkers. Formulated as 50-100 µm microspheres with bound ADSC, we hypothesized that this would improve ADSC retention and function. Crosslinking was performed with chemical crosslinkers (EDC and HMDIC) at high and low concentrations or by thermal treatment (DHT). ADSC adhesion, proliferation, apoptosis/necrosis, and gene expressions in two-dimensional and three-dimensional were analyzed. In addition, the effect of ADSC conditioned medium (ADSC-CM) on proapoptotic/sprouting HUVEC was examined. Our results show that all materials support cell adhesion in short time point, however, EDC-High crosslinker induced ADSC apoptosis/necrosis. Gene expression results revealed lower expression of proinflammatory genes in chemical crosslinked materials, despite EDC-High the proinflammatory genes expressions were similar or higher than TCPS. In addition, cultured ADSC on DHT crosslinked RCP showed a proinflammatory phenotype compared to TCPS. Sprouting assay results confirmed the protective effect of ADSC-CM derived from TCPS and HMDIC-High crosslinked RCP proapoptotic HUVEC. We conclude that ADSC adhere to the materials and maintain their therapeutic profile.

Adipose tissue-derived stromal cells inhibit TGF-ß1-induced differentiation of human dermal fibroblasts and keloid scar-derived fibroblasts in a paracrine fashion.

BACKGROUND: Adipose tissue-derived stromal cells augment wound healing and skin regeneration. It is unknown whether and how they can also influence dermal scarring. The authors hypothesized that adipose tissue-derived stromal cells inhibit adverse differentiation of dermal fibroblasts induced by the pivotal factor in scarring, namely, transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß. METHODS: TGF-ß1-treated adult human dermal fibroblasts and keloid scar-derived fibroblasts were incubated with adipose tissue-derived stromal cell-conditioned medium and assessed for proliferation and differentiation, particularly the production of collagen, expression of SM22α, and development of hypertrophy and contractility. RESULTS: TGF-ß1-induced proliferation of adult human dermal fibroblasts was abolished by adipose tissue-derived stromal cell-conditioned medium. Simultaneously, the medium reduced SM22α gene and protein expression of TGF-ß1-treated adult human dermal fibroblasts, and their contractility was reduced also. Furthermore, the medium strongly reduced transcription of collagen I and III genes and their corresponding proteins. In contrast, it tipped the balance of matrix turnover to degradation through stimulating gene expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1, MMP-2, and MMP-14, whereas MMP-2 activity was up-regulated also. Even in end-stage myofibroblasts (i.e., keloid scar-derived fibroblasts), adipose tissue-derived stromal cell-conditioned medium suppressed TGF-ß1-induced myofibroblast contraction and collagen III gene expression. CONCLUSION: The authors show that adipose tissue-derived stromal cells inhibit TGF-ß1-induced adverse differentiation and function of adult human dermal fibroblasts and TGF-ß1-induced contraction in keloid scar-derived fibroblasts, in a paracrine fashion.

Physical properties and erosion behavior of poly(trimethylene carbonate-co-ε-caprolactone) networks.

Form-stable resorbable networks are prepared by gamma irradiating trimethylene carbonate (TMC)- and ε-caprolactone (CL)-based (co)polymer films. To evaluate their suitability for biomedical applications, their physical properties and erosion behavior are investigated. Homopolymer and copolymer networks that are amorphous at room temperature are flexible and rubbery with elastic moduli ranging from 1.8 ± 0.3 to 5.2 ± 0.4 MPa and permanent set values as low as 0.9% strain. The elastic moduli of the semicrystalline networks are higher and range from 61 ± 3 to 484 ± 34 MPa. The erosion behavior of (co)polymer networks is investigated in vitro using macrophage cultures, and in vivo by subcutaneous implantation in rats. In macrophage cultures, as well as upon implantation, a surface erosion process is observed for the amorphous (co)polymer networks, while an abrupt decrease in the rate and a change in the nature of the erosion process are observed with increasing crystallinity. These resorbable and form-stable networks with tuneable properties may find application in a broad range of biomedical applications.

Endotoxin contamination delays the foreign body reaction.

Biomaterials are at continuous risk of bacterial contamination during production and application. In vivo, bacterial contamination of biomaterials delays the foreign body reaction (FBR). Endotoxins such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), major constituents of the bacterial cell wall, are potent stimulators of the immune system in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, biomaterials contaminated with LPS induce the production of proinflammatory cytokines by adherent macrophages. This suggests that the presence of endotoxins on biomaterials will intensify the FBR. The effects of LPS on the course of the FBR have never been studied in vivo. In this study, the influence of LPS contamination on the FBR to subcutaneously implanted Puramatrix-loaded hexamethylenediisocyanate-crosslinked dermal sheep collagen (HDSC) disks was studied in rats. During the onset phase of the FBR, a massive influx of granulocytes was detected in LPS-contaminated disks, while their presence was prolonged. IL-10 production inside LPS-contaminated disks was increased at days 10 and 21. Macrophage densities were not affected by the presence of LPS. However, macrophage functionality was altered: giant cell formation and biomaterial degradation were delayed by LPS-contamination up to 21 days. On the basis of these results, we conclude that LPS delays the FBR. This finding indicates that endotoxin contamination has significant implications for the in vivo function of biomaterials and medical devices and emphasizes the importance of endotoxin testing.

In vivo behavior of trimethylene carbonate and ε-caprolactone-based (co)polymer networks: degradation and tissue response.

The in vivo erosion behavior of crosslinked (co)polymers based on trimethylene carbonate (TMC) and ε-caprolactone (CL) was investigated. High molecular weight poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC) homopolymer- and copolymer films were crosslinked by gamma irradiation. To adjust the in vivo erosion rate of the (co)polymer films, both the irradiation dose (25, 50, or 100 kGy) for PTMC and composition (100-70 mol % TMC) at a constant irradiation dose of 25 kGy were varied. After subcutaneous implantation of irradiated films in rats, their in vivo behavior was evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively. When the irradiation dose for PTMC was increased from 25 to 100 kGy, the erosion rate of nonextracted PTMC films (determined at day 5) decreased from 39.7 ± 16.0 µm day(-1) to 15.1 ± 2.5 µm day(-1), and the number of lymphocytes in the tissue surrounding the films decreased from 235 ± 114 cells mm(-2) to 64 ± 33 cells mm(-2). The number of macrophages and giant cells at the tissue-polymer interface also decreased with increasing irradiation dose. All (co)polymer films eroded completely within 28 days of implantation. Variation of the TMC content of gamma irradiated (co)polymer films did not affect the tissue response to the gamma irradiated (co)polymer films and their in vivo erosion behavior much.

Polyinosinic acid enhances delivery of adenovirus vectors in vivo by preventing sequestration in liver macrophages.

Adenovirus is among the preferred vectors for gene therapy because of its superior in vivo gene-transfer efficiency. However, upon systemic administration, adenovirus is preferentially sequestered by the liver, resulting in reduced adenovirus-mediated transgene expression in targeted tissues. In the liver, Kupffer cells are responsible for adenovirus degradation and contribute to the inflammatory response. As scavenger receptors present on Kupffer cells are responsible for the elimination of blood-borne pathogens, we investigated the possible implication of these receptors in the clearance of the adenovirus vector. Polyinosinic acid [poly(I)], a scavenger receptor A ligand, was analysed for its capability to inhibit adenovirus uptake specifically in macrophages. In in vitro studies, the addition of poly(I) before virus infection resulted in a specific inhibition of adenovirus-induced gene expression in a J774 macrophage cell line and in primary Kupffer cells. In in vivo experiments, pre-administration of poly(I) caused a 10-fold transient increase in the number of adenovirus particles circulating in the blood. As a consequence, transgene expression levels measured in different tissues were enhanced (by 5- to 15-fold) compared with those in animals that did not receive poly(I). Finally, necrosis of Kupffer cells, which normally occurs as a consequence of systemic adenovirus administration, was prevented by the use of poly(I). No toxicity, as measured by liver-enzyme levels, was observed after poly(I) treatment. From our data, we conclude that poly(I) can prevent adenovirus sequestration by liver macrophages. These results imply that, by inhibiting adenovirus uptake by Kupffer cells, it is possible to reduce the dose of the viral vector to diminish the liver-toxicity effect and to improve the level of transgene expression in target tissues. In systemic gene-therapy applications, this will have great impact on the development of targeted adenoviral vectors.

Neovascularization and vascular markers in a foreign body reaction to subcutaneously implanted degradable biomaterial in mice.

To study the spatiotemporal processes of angiogenesis during a foreign body reaction (FBR), biodegradable bovine collagen type-1 (COL-I) discs were implanted in mice for a period up to 28 days. The cellular infiltration (consisting mainly of macrophages, giant cells and fibroblasts), and the extent of neovascularization into the discs were determined. Also the expression levels and/or distribution of the endothelial cell markers von Willebrand factor (vWF), platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1)/CD31, MECA-32 antigens and endomucin, and of the basal lamina marker collagen type IV (Coll IV) were analysed. In time, a strong neovascularization of the discs was observed, with frequently occurring vascular sprouting, and intussusceptive growth of vessels. In this model, vWF, MECA-32 and endomucin antibodies often failed to stain neovessels in the COL-I discs. In contrast, staining for collagen IV basal lamina component in combination with CD31 covered the complete range of neo-vessels. We conclude that the model described in this study is a useful model to study FBR induced angiogenesis because of the active neovascularization taking place during prolonged periods of time.