Multifunctional Poly(2-oxazoline) Nanoparticles for Biological Applications.

New multifunctional copoly(2-oxazoline) nanoparticles were prepared for cell studies. The polymer contains double-bond side chains as potential reaction sites for "thio"-click reactions as well as a fluorescein label covalently bound to the polymer backbone. Using the nanoprecipitation technique, spherical nanoparticles of 200-800 nm were obtained. Confocal laser scanning microscopy measurements revealed the cellular uptake of the nanoparticles.

Assessment of caspase-4 released free AFC by RP-HPLC and fluorescence detection.

A simple RP-HPLC method based on fluorescence detection was developed for the quantitation of 7-amino-4-trifluoro methylcoumarin (AFC) in cell lysates from JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cells for determination of caspase-4 activity. In contrast to the established methods of AFC detection using a fluorescence microplate reader or using a fluorescence photometer, the separation of AFC-signals from interfering fluorescence signals by a reversed phase column affords more precise quantitation of released AFC. This can be important for analyses of cell lysates with low caspase activity or experimental series with marginal differences among samples. By applying this new method, a linear dynamic range of 40pmol/mL to 3nmol/mL with a correlation coefficient of 0.9996 was achieved. Due to the short retention time ( approximately 7min), the determination of AFC by RP-HPLC under isocratic conditions requires small amounts of samples (50microL injection volume), and allows increased sample throughput. This method should be easily applied with little or no modification to other caspase assays by using the same fluorophore.

Leukemia inhibitory factor triggers activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, proliferation, invasiveness, and altered protease expression in choriocarcinoma cells.

Extravillous trophoblast cells resemble cancer cells with regard to their intrinsic invasiveness. They invade decidual tissue, but, unlike tumor cells, shut down their invasive properties, when they become inappropriate. Stimuli involved in the modulation of invasion, as well as their underlying signaling mechanisms require further clarification. We were especially interested in discovering signals capable of stimulating invasion in otherwise low-invasive cells involved in reproduction. Using the choriocarcinoma cell line Jeg-3 as a model, we have addressed the potential role of cytokine/growth factor-driven activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in this process. Jeg-3 cells were treated with various factors known to induce trophoblast proliferation, differentiation, migration, or invasiveness (insulin-like-growth-factor-II (IGF-II), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)). Only LIF elicited strong tyrosine phosphorylation and specific DNA-binding activity of STAT3. It induced a significant acceleration of cell proliferation and promoted the capability of Jeg-3 cells to invade into an artificial extracellular matrix. Moreover, LIF influenced the expression pattern of proteases and protease inhibitors with potential relevance for invasiveness (downregulation of mRNA for tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) and upregulation of mRNA for caspase-4). In conjunction with earlier work, in which we found that STAT3 DNA-binding activity was increased in invasive cells (choriocarcinoma, first trimester trophoblasts) and absent in non-invasive cells (term trophoblasts), these findings suggest a connection between LIF-driven STAT3 activity and invasiveness of choriocarcinoma and trophoblast cells.

Signal transduction in trophoblast invasion.

During the first trimester of pregnancy, well-differentiated primary cells of the placenta known as trophoblast cells grow in an invasive and destructive fashion similar to malignancies, but limited in space and time. The comparison of trophoblast cells with their malignant counterpart, human choriocarcinoma cells, offers an attractive model to understand the origin or development of malignant growth. Several cytokines and growth factors are known to influence trophoblast migration (e.g. EGF, IGF-2, HGF), proliferation (e.g. leptin, HGF, GM-CSF) and/or invasion (e.g. leukemia inhibitory factor, LIF), each factor utilizing at least one pathway for intracellular signaling in the trophoblast. Two pathways that are crossed especially often mediate the signals of these factors and are simultaneously well established in terms of tumor invasion: the Janus kinase-signal transducers and activators of transcription (Jak-Stat) and receptor-associated tyrosine kinase-mitogen-activated protein kinase (RTK-MAPK) pathways. These two pathways are detrimental for reproduction in general, and in part for placenta development, as a series of knockout experiments demonstrate. Aspects of each pathway are also implicated to be involved in trophoblast invasion, e.g. STAT3 is constitutively activated in invasive first trimester trophoblast cells, and activated ERK is detectable in intermediate trophoblast cells, an invasive phenotype. Interaction at several intersection points between the pathways has been described in several cell systems so that the same would seem to be possible in trophoblast cells. In this review, some of the possible areas of interaction are alluded to.

The possible role of the Jak/STAT pathway in lymphocytes at the fetomaternal interface.

Pregnancy is accompanied by a Th2-prone immune modulation, which is a major puzzle piece among maternofetal tolerance-promoting factors. A large number of cytokines is physiologically or pathologically present in the decidua and is potentially able to act on lymphocytes and NK cells, which express a variety of respective receptors. Intracellular signals from these receptors are to a major part transduced via the Janus kinases (JAK) and signal transducers and activators of a transcription (STAT) system, which consists of at least 4 different kinases and 7 STATs plus several subtypes and splicing variants. A network of suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) controls their balance. The interactions of all these intracellular factors and cross-linking with further signaling systems seem to be crucial for the maintenance of a maternal cytokine profile which promotes the tolerance of the fetus.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS3) balance controls cytotoxicity and IL-10 expression in decidual-like natural killer cell line NK-92.

OBJECTIVES In previous studies, we have shown that sHLA-G reduces cytotoxicity of decidual NK cells, which was dependent upon reduction in signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and perforin. In this study, we aimed to confirm the role of STAT3 for induction of cytotoxicity and to analyze the regulative role of its antagonist suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3). Furthermore, the influence of both factors on cytokine expression should be analyzed. METHODS All experiments were performed on NK-92 cells. STAT3 and SOCS3 have been silenced using two different small interfering RNA sequences each. Silencing efficiency and STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation have been analyzed by Western blotting. Cytotoxicity to K562 target cells has been assessed by flow cytometry. Expression of IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, and TNF-ß has been measured using cytometric bead arrays for flow cytometry. RESULTS STAT3 and SOCS3 have been successfully silenced. STAT3 silencing reduced cytotoxicity. SOCS3 silencing induced increase in STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation and cytotoxicity. STAT3 silencing reduced IL-10 expression significantly, while SOCS3 silencing induced, also significantly, the opposite effect. The other cytokines were expressed at very low concentration or not constantly affected. CONCLUSION STAT3 and SOCS3 are involved in regulation of NK cell cytotoxicity and IL-10 expression.

Role of regulatory and angiogenic cytokines in invasion of trophoblastic cells.

PROBLEM: Trophoblast invasion is a temporally and locally restricted process, which regulates implantation and oxygen arrival to the embryo through the dialog with spiral artery endothelium. Trophoblast factors with angiogenic potential are activated by hypoxia. Their capacities to induce proliferation, migration, and invasion of trophoblastic cells have been investigated. METHOD OF STUDY: The expression of interleukin (IL)-6, CD126, CD130, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and hypoxia inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) has been silenced in JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cells by using siRNA. Silencing efficacy has been assessed by ELISA, PCR or Western blotting. Proliferation has been measured by flow cytometry, migration by a transwell assay, and invasion by a Matrigel assay. RESULTS: Proliferation was significantly reduced by silencing of CD126 or CD130, migration by silencing of IL-6, VEGF, or HIF-1alpha, and invasion by silencing of IL-6 and HIF-1alpha. CONCLUSION: The expression of IL-6, VEGF, and HIF-1alpha in trophoblastic cells is involved in the control of trophoblast invasion and migration.

Cell-specific RNA interference by peptide-inhibited-peptidase-activated siRNAs.

The use of chemically-synthesized short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) is the key method of choice to manipulate gene expression in mammalian cell cultures and in vivo. Several previous studies have aimed at inducing cell-specific RNA interference (RNAi) in order to use siRNA molecules as therapeutic reagents. Here, we used peptide-inhibited siRNAs that were activated after cleavage by cell-specific peptidases. We show that siRNAs with bound peptide at the antisense strand could be activated in target cells and were able to induce RNAi in a cell-specific manner. Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) and Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT)-3 gene expression were selectively reduced in a JEG-3 human choriocarcinoma cell line expressing the activating enzyme caspase-4, whereas the effect was absent in HEK cells which lacked the enzyme. In JEG-3 cells, reduction of STAT3 gene expression by conventional and peptide-inhibited siRNA led to a decrease in cell proliferation. This suggests that peptide-inhibited siRNAs provide improved cell specificity and offers new opportunities for their therapeutic use.

Selective downregulation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase alpha in leukocytes during pregnancy.

PROBLEM: During pregnancy, it is crucially important that the mother's immune system tolerates the developing embryo. Although a number of mechanisms of immunological tolerance have been described, little is known about intracellular signaling events, causing a decrease in the mother's leukocyte activity. METHOD OF STUDY: We investigated the expression and activity of phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) in maternal blood cells of healthy volunteers by Reverse Transcription PCR and Western blotting. RESULTS: Our data reveal a selective downregulation of the p110alpha catalytic isoform. This correlated with a slight decrease in PI3K activity as judged by the levels of phosphorylated Akt. CONCLUSION As PI3K are involved in signal transduction of various leukocyte receptors, this downregulation may comprise a means of holding immune functions at bay.

Interleukin-11 increases invasiveness of JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cells by modulating STAT3 expression.

Amongst the interleukin-6 (IL-6) family of cytokines, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) has been shown to promote trophoblast invasion and proliferation. In the present study interleukin-11 (IL-11), another member of the IL-6 family, was investigated for its role in regulating invasion, migration and proliferation of JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cells. JEG-3 cells, like extra villous trophoblast (EVT), express mRNA transcripts encoding IL-11 and IL-11 receptor-alpha (IL-11Ralpha). Treatment of JEG-3 cells with IL-11 led to an increase in invasion across Matrigel extracellular matrix without an increase in proliferation. There was a dose-dependent increase in activation of STAT3 under the influence of IL-11 with maximum Tyr705 phosphorylation by 10min. In addition, treatment of JEG-3 cells with IL-11 for 24h led to an increase in expression of unphosphorylated STAT1 and STAT3. Analysis of the nuclear fraction showed an increased localization of STAT3 following IL-11 treatment while STAT1 was absent. Silencing the expression of STAT3 by siRNA caused a 25% reduction in invasion compared to control cells, however this was not significant. Furthermore, treatment of STAT3-silenced JEG-3 cells with IL-11 led to a significant increase in invasion compared to STAT3-silenced cells without cytokine, but this was not significant compared to non-transfected control cells. Silencing the expression of gp130 but not of IL-6R abrogated the increase in invasiveness of JEG-3 cells following IL-11 treatment. In conclusion, activation and upregulation of STAT3 appears to be critical for the IL-11-mediated increase in invasiveness of JEG-3 cells.

Trophoblast invasion: the role of intracellular cytokine signalling via signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3).

Trophoblast cells display a very unique capability: they physiologically invade into the surrounding tissue. This capability is widely associated with tumours, and, indeed, the invasive behaviour of both is rather similar. The imposing difference is that trophoblast cell invasion is temporally and locally controlled in contrast to unlimited tumour invasion. It initiates immediately after embryo implantation into the endometrium. Parallel to tumours, trophoblasts secrete proteases, such as matrix metalloproteinases, which dissolve the extracellular matrix and the surrounding tissue. Thereby, these proteases prepare and allow true invasion of trophoblasts. The invasive capacities of trophoblasts are positively and negatively regulated by numerous cytokines including leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF), interleukin-6, hepatocyte growth factor, granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor and others. They interact via specific receptors with the trophoblast cells, in which they activate intracellular signalling cascades. These will then induce expression of invasion relevant genes. One of these signalling pathways is the Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) pathway. Especially phosphorylated STAT3 enhances invasiveness of tumours and trophoblast cells, where it is mainly activated by LIF. One of its most efficient physiological antagonists is suppressor of cytokine signalling 3. The balance of these two intracellular molecules seems to be a key regulator of tumour and trophoblast invasion.

Progesterone-induced blocking factor activates STAT6 via binding to a novel IL-4 receptor.

Progesterone-induced blocking factor (PIBF) induces Th2-dominant cytokine production. Western blotting and EMSA revealed phosphorylation as well as nuclear translocation of STAT6 and inhibition of STAT4 phosphorylation in PIBF-treated cells. The silencing of STAT6 by small interfering RNA reduced the cytokine effects. Because the activation of the STAT6 pathway depends on the ligation of IL-4R, we tested the involvement of IL-4R in PIBF-induced STAT6 activation. Although PIBF does not bind to IL-4R, the blocking of the latter with an Ab abolished PIBF-induced STAT6 activation, whereas the blocking of the IL-13R had no effect. PIBF activated suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 and inhibited IL-12-induced suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 activation. The blocking of IL-4R counteracted all the described effects, suggesting that the PIBF receptor interacts with IL-4R alpha-chain, allowing PIBF to activate the STAT6 pathway. PIBF did not phosphorylate Jak3, suggesting that the gamma-chain is not needed for PIBF signaling. Confocal microscopic analysis revealed a colocalization and at 37 degrees C a cocapping of the FITC PIBF-activated PIBF receptor and PE anti-IL-4R-labeled IL-4R. After the digestion of the cells with phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C, the STAT6-activating effect of PIBF was lost, whereas that of IL-4 remained unaltered. These data suggest the existence of a novel type of IL-4R composed of the IL-4R alpha-chain and the GPI-anchored PIBF receptor.

Inhibition of term decidual NK cell cytotoxicity by soluble HLA-G1.

OBJECTIVES: Soluble (s)HLA-G1 is produced by trophoblast cells. Aim was to analyze the capacities and mechanisms of sHLA-G1 to regulate interleukin (IL)-2-induced cytotoxicity of natural killer (NK) cells from human deciduas. METHODS: Natural killer cells were isolated from decidual layers of term placentae, stimulated or not with IL-2 and supplemented with various concentrations of recombinant soluble HLA-G1 (sHLA-G1). For NK cell cytotoxicity assays, K562 cells were used as targets. Expression of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and perforin was analyzed by Western blotting. Apoptosis was examined by assessment of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage. NK cells were analyzed by flow cytometry for IL-2receptor-alpha (IL-2R alpha; CD25) and transferrin receptor CD71 expression. RESULTS: Interleukin-2 increases CD71, STAT3, perforin expression and cytotoxic potential of NK cells. Expression of CD71, STAT3 and perforin decreased simultaneously with cytotoxicity and dose-dependently when sHLA-G1 (1.6 micro g/mL-1.6 ng/mL) was added to IL-2 stimulated cultures. sHLA-G1 did not induce apoptosis and CD25 expression was not affected. CONCLUSION: Interleukin-2R alpha expression is not controlled by sHLA-G1, but its signal transducer STAT3 as well as several downstream effects, such as perforin expression, proliferation and cytotoxicity. The control of STAT3 bioavailability through sHLA-G1 may be a key regulator of the mentioned effects.

Inhibition of HLA-G production in JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cells by RNA interference.

Human leukocyte antigen-G (HLA-G) plays a major role in escape of trophoblast cells from maternal cytotoxicity. Unless its malignant transformation, Jeg-3 choriocarcinoma cell line maintained the capacity of HLA-G production. For the analysis of function and mechanisms of HLA-G-induced immune regulation, a human cellular model with suppressed HLA-G would be very helpful. RNA interference (RNAi) is a very elegant method for this approach, but the design of appropriate oligonucleotide sequences may provide difficulties. We designed oligonucleotides to interfere exclusively with HLA-G mRNA, which were applied at different concentrations to 50% confluent Jeg-3 cells. After 36 hr, the HLA-G content in Jeg-3 cells was analyzed by Western blots. Applying the described RNAi method and oligonucleotides the cellular content of HLA-G was dose-dependently reduced as assessed in several independent Western blots. This method provides a tool for extensive investigation of HLA-G functions in vitro and if vivo.