Activated 4E-BP1 represses tumourigenesis and IGF-I-mediated activation of the eIF4F complex in mesothelioma.

BACKGROUND: Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I signalling stimulates proliferation, survival, and invasion in malignant mesothelioma and other tumour types. Studies have found that tumourigenesis is linked to dysregulation of cap-dependent protein translation. METHODS: The effect of IGF stimulation on cap-mediated translation activation in mesothelioma cell lines was studied using binding assays to a synthetic 7-methyl GTP-cap analogue. In addition, cap-mediated translation was genetically repressed in these cells with a dominant active motive of 4E-BP1. RESULTS: In most mesothelioma cell lines, IGF-I stimulation resulted in a hyperphosphorylation-mediated inactivation of 4E-BP1 compared with that in normal mesothelial cells. An inhibitor of Akt diminished IGF-I-mediated phosphorylation of 4E-BP1, whereas inhibiting MAPK signalling had no such effect. IGF-I stimulation resulted in the activation of the cap-mediated translation complex as indicated by an increased eIF4G/eIF4E ratio in cap-affinity assays. Akt inhibition reversed the eIF4G/eIF4E ratio. Mesothelioma cells transfected with an activated 4E-BP1 protein (4E-BP1(A37/A46)) were resistant to IGF-I-mediated growth, motility, and colony formation. In a murine xenograft model, mesothelioma cells expressing the dominant active 4E-BP1(A37/A46) repressor protein showed abrogated tumourigenicity compared with control tumours. CONCLUSION: IGF-I signalling in mesothelioma cells drives cell proliferation, motility, and tumourigenesis through its ability to activate cap-mediated protein translation complex through PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling.

Role of mesenchymal cell death in lung remodeling after injury.

Repair after acute lung injury requires elimination of granulation tissue from the alveolar airspace. We hypothesized that during lung repair, signals capable of inducing the death of the two principal cellular elements of granulation tissue, fibroblasts and endothelial cells, would be present at the air-lung interface. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid obtained from patients during lung repair induced both fibroblast and endothelial cell death, while fluid obtained at the time of injury or from patient controls did not. The mode of cell death for endothelial cells was apoptosis. Fibroblast death, while morphologically distinct from necrosis, also differed from typical apoptosis. Only proliferating cells were susceptible to the bioactivities in lavage fluid, which were trypsin sensitive and lipid insoluble. Histological examination of lung tissue from patients after lung injury revealed evidence of apoptotic cells within airspace granulation tissue. Our results suggest that cell death induced by peptide(s) present at the air-lung interface may participate in the remodeling process that accompanies tissue repair after injury.

Translational control of programmed cell death: eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E blocks apoptosis in growth-factor-restricted fibroblasts with physiologically expressed or deregulated Myc.

There is increasing evidence that cell cycle transit is potentially lethal, with survival depending on the activation of metabolic pathways which block apoptosis. However, the identities of those pathways coupling cell cycle transit to survival remain undefined. Here we show that the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) can mediate both proliferative and survival signaling. Overexpression of eIF4E completely substituted for serum or individual growth factors in preserving the viability of established NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. An eIF4E mutant (Ser-53 changed to Ala) defective in mediating its growth-factor-regulated functions was also defective in its survival signaling. Survival signaling by enforced expression of eIF4E did not result from autocrine release of survival factors, nor did it lead to increased expression of the apoptosis antagonists Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL. In addition, the execution apparatus of the apoptotic response in eIF4E-overexpressing cells was found to be intact. Increased expression of eIF4E was sufficient to inhibit apoptosis in serum-restricted primary fibroblasts with enforced expression of Myc. In contrast, activation of Ha-Ras, which is required for eIF4E proliferative signaling, did not suppress Myc-induced apoptosis. These data suggest that the eIF4E-activated pathways leading to survival and cell cycle progression are distinct. This dual signaling of proliferation and survival might be the basis for the potency of eIF4E as an inducer of neoplastic transformation.

Cap-dependent mRNA translation and the ubiquitin-proteasome system cooperate to promote ERBB2-dependent esophageal cancer phenotype.

Pathological post-transcriptional control of the proteome composition is a central feature of malignancy. Two steps in this pathway, eIF4F-driven cap-dependent mRNA translation and the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), are deregulated in most if not all cancers. We tested a hypothesis that eIF4F is aberrantly activated in human esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) and requires elevated rates of protein turnover and proteolysis and thereby activated UPS for its pro-neoplastic function. Here, we show that 80% of tumors and cell lines featuring amplified ERBB2 display an aberrantly activated eIF4F. Direct genetic targeting of the eIF4F in ERBB2-amplified EAC cells with a constitutively active form of the eIF4F repressor 4E-BP1 decreased colony formation and proliferation and triggered apoptosis. In contrast, suppression of m-TOR-kinase activity towards 4E-BP1with rapamycin only modestly inhibited eIF4F-driven cap-dependent translation and EAC malignant phenotype; and promoted feedback activation of other cancer pathways. Our data show that co-treatment with 2 FDA-approved agents, the m-TOR inhibitor rapamycin and the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, leads to strong synergistic growth-inhibitory effects. Moreover, direct targeting of eIF4F with constitutively active 4E-BP1 is significantly more potent in collaboration with bortezomib than rapamycin. These data support the hypothesis that a finely tuned balance between eIF4F-driven protein synthesis and proteasome-mediated protein degradation is required for the maintenance of ERBB2-mediated EAC malignant phenotype. Altogether, our study supports the development of pharmaceuticals to directly target eIF4F as most efficient strategy; and provides a clear rationale for the clinical evaluation of combination therapy with m-TOR inhibitors and bortezomib for EAC treatment.

Cell cycle controls in higher eukaryotic cells: resting state or a prolonged G1 period?

We express the viewpoint that control over cell growth in higher eukaryotes is achieved predominantly by regular transition of cells from proliferation to rest and vice versa as a result of coordinated interrelationship between intracellular growth inhibitors and extracellular growth factors. The resting state is considered as a special physiological state of a cell where the prereplicative reactions necessary for the onset of DNA synthesis are inhibited. Cells pass into a resting state at each successive cell cycle, with regard to the next cycle, once the threshold level of growth inhibitors has been attained. Cellular rest may thus initiate and proceed in parallel with conventional periods of the cell cycle but in a hidden way. Its termination strictly depends on the appropriate concentration of extracellular growth factors. In the absence of growth factors cells, after completing mitosis, pass into an overt state of rest metabolically different from any period of the cell cycle including G1.

Onset of DNA replication in nuclei of proliferating and resting NIH 3T3 fibroblasts following fusion.

NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblasts arrested in medium containing 0.5% serum were fused with stimulated cells taken at 2-h intervals after replacing the medium with one containing 10% serum, and DNA synthesis was studied in mono-, homo- and heterokaryons using radioautography with double-labelling technique. The presence of a resting nucleus in a common cytoplasm with a stimulated nucleus from the prereplicative period has an inhibitory effect on the entry of the stimulated nucleus into the S period in medium containing either 0.5 or 10% serum, but ongoing DNA synthesis continues. After a 24-h stay in a common cytoplasm with resting nuclei the stimulated nuclei return into the state of rest. When resting cells are stimulated by 10% serum, their inhibitory effect on stimulated nuclei in heterokaryons still persists, at least for 2 h following stimulation. Preincubation of resting cells with cycloheximide for 4 h abolishes their ability to suppress DNA synthesis in stimulated nuclei. The data suggest that resting cells produce an endogenous inhibitor of cell proliferation, whose formation depends upon the synthesis of protein. When stimulated, the cells can proliferate only after decreasing the level of this inhibitor. The results obtained are consistent with the idea of a negative control of cell proliferation.

Responses of proliferating and non-proliferating Chinese hamster cells to cytotoxic agents.

The effects of various cytotoxic chemicals, as measured by viable cell counts, colony-forming ability and proliferative capacity, have been studied using Chinese hamster cells in exponential and plateau (stationary) phases of growth. The proliferating cells were altogether more sensitive to the action of the drugs than non-proliferating cells. However, imuran (azathioprine) a purine antimetabolite, was more effective against the plateau-phase cells. The observed response of cells to imuran could be detected at a wide range of concentrations (1-100 microgram/ml). These findings are discussed in view of the possible ability of imuran to interfere with active metabolic processes in non-proliferating cells.

Reactivation of rat peritoneal leukocyte and mast cell nuclei in heterokaryons with actively growing mouse cells.

Leukocytes and mast cells of rat peritoneal exudate (PE) were fused in vitro with actively growing mouse cells. Segmented ring-shaped nuclei of granulocytes undergo drastic changes which result in dispersion of tightly condensed chromatin and gradual disappearance of the opening in the centre of the nucleus. These changes are paralleled by a resumption of RNA and DNA synthesis, as shown by autoradiography with [3H]uridine and [3H]thymidine. Solid inactive nuclei of mast cells, lymphocytes, monocytes and macrophages also resume DNA replication and high level of RNA synthesis. Fusion of thymidine kinase-deficient 3T3-4E cells with PE cells results in the incorporation of [3H]thymidine into the nuclei of heterokaryons. This may be considered evidence of the phenotypic expression of rat thymidine kinase gene in heterokaryons. A similar way in which segmented and non-segmented dormant nuclei undergo reactivation suggests that the reversibility of nuclear inactivation is a common feature of differentiated somatic cells.

Cell fusion to study nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions in endothelial cell apoptosis.

Studies examining the regulation of nuclear rearrangements during apoptosis have led to conflicting results. Cytoplasmic control of nuclear events has been strongly suggested by cell-free experimental systems. In contrast, strict cytoplasmic control cannot account for the results of fibroblast-thymocyte fusion experiments in which dexamethasone induction of polykaryons led only to thymocyte nuclear apoptosis. Unresolved by these fusion studies was whether fibroblast nuclei were indifferent to heterologous cytoplasmic signals. Our objective was to resolve this discrepancy using cell fusion in a homologous system. Our strategy was to fuse endothelial cells with high levels of susceptibility to the induction of apoptosis (log phase cells arrested in G1 for 48 hours by isoleucine deprivation) with those manifesting low levels of susceptibility (serum-deprived, G0). Resultant fused and unfused cells were induced to undergo apoptosis by incubation with tumor necrosis factor-alpha and cycloheximide. Depending on the parental cell of origin, between 14 and 30% of dikaryons contained one apoptotic and one intact nucleus, indicating that strict cytoplasmic control was not occurring. In accord with this, the total frequency of nuclear apoptosis was unchanged after fusion. However, the distribution of apoptotic nuclei revealed a pronounced cytoplasmic influence, with a two- to fivefold increase in coordinate nuclear behavior. This pattern of nuclear apoptosis was consistent with a model of control in which both the state of nuclear susceptibility to apoptosis and expression of cytoplasmic pro-apoptotic regulators determined whether nuclear apoptosis would eventuate.

Lovastatin induces fibroblast apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. A possible therapy for fibroproliferative disorders.

Diseases associated with pathological fibroproliferation represent a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Despite the importance of this class of disorders, current therapy is of limited value, and no therapy is available to reduce the fibroblast population size within existing fibrotic lesions. In this regard, constitutive expression of growth-promoting genes can sensitize cells to undergo apoptosis. Studies in our laboratory have demonstrated that lovastatin potently induces apoptosis in fibroblasts constitutively expressing Myc, and that lung fibroblasts isolated from fibrotic lesions constitutively express growth-promoting genes. In this study, we sought to determine if nontransformed lung fibroblasts would manifest susceptibility to lovastatin-induced apoptosis similar to that observed in fibroblasts ectopically expressing Myc. Here we show that clinically achievable concentrations of lovastatin induce apoptosis in normal and fibrotic lung fibroblasts in vitro, as evidenced by acridine orange staining, terminal transferase nick end translation (TUNEL), and DNA laddering. Apoptosis of human lung fibroblasts was dose- and time-dependent, and blocked by exogenous mevalonic acid. Furthermore, apoptosis was associated with decreased levels of mature Ras, a molecule directly implicated in fibroblast rescue from apoptosis. The ability of lovastatin to induce fibroblast apoptosis in vivo was examined using a guinea pig wound chamber model. Lovastatin (5 microM, 8 d) reduced granulation tissue formation in the wound chambers by 64.7%, with associated ultrastructural evidence of fibroblast apoptosis. These findings support further study of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors as potential therapy for patients with fibroproliferative disorders.

Induction of endothelial cell apoptosis by TNF alpha: modulation by inhibitors of protein synthesis.

Our objective was to examine the induction of endothelial cell apoptosis by the proinflammatory ligand, TNF alpha. We hypothesized that TNF alpha influences endothelial cell viability by altering the balance of regulatory molecules that either induce or suppress apoptosis. Since the identity of these regulators is unknown, our approach was to examine induction of endothelial cell apoptosis by TNF alpha alone and in the context of an inhibitor of transcription or translation. TNF alpha was able to induce bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent fashion. Inhibition of transcription with actinomycin D or translation with cycloheximide also resulted in apoptosis, which reached a maximum value of approximately 35 to 40% of cells after 24 h. TNF alpha induction of apoptosis was either potentiated or abrogated by cycloheximide, depending on the timing of TNF alpha exposure in relation to inhibition of protein synthesis. When cycloheximide was added concomitantly with midrange concentrations of TNF alpha, there was both a dramatic acceleration and a synergistic increase in the observed apoptotic response, with all endothelial cells dying within 24 h. When cycloheximide was added as a function of time after termination of TNF alpha exposure, the synergistic induction of apoptosis was maintained at > 70% of its maximum value for 1 h, declining monotonically in a time-dependent fashion to baseline values after 6 h. In contrast, when TNF alpha was added after protein synthesis was inhibited, no additional increase in apoptosis above that observed with inhibition of protein synthesis alone was observed. Our results are consistent with the concept that endothelial cell viability depends on an interaction of inducers and suppressors of apoptosis, which are susceptible to modulation by TNF alpha.

Alveolar epithelial cells regulate the induction of endothelial cell apoptosis.

Mesenchymal cell apoptosis is important during development, tissue homeostasis, and repair. We sought to determine whether type II alveolar epithelial cells influence mesenchymal cell apoptosis, using the model of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced apoptosis of endothelial cells. Apoptosis was quantified by morphology and confirmed by electrophoretic DNA size analysis. Endothelial cells exposed to 20 ng/ml of TNF-alpha for 16 h exhibited apoptosis in 14.4 +/- 1.4% (SE) of the cells, whereas serum-free conditioned media (CM) from primary cultures of rat type II cells reduced TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis by 52% to 7.5 +/- 0.9% (P < 0.01). Flow cytometric analysis of subdiploid DNA content per cell also showed that CM reduced the percentage of cells with TNF-alpha-induced DNA degradation by 48 +/- 1.7%. The protective effect of CM was concentration dependent and also was effective across a range of TNF concentrations. This CM factor was trypsin sensitive and stable at 65 degrees C for 1 h. It bound to a Mono-Q anion-exchange resin, eluting in a discrete peak at 1.18 M NaCl and pH 8.5. Therefore alveolar type II cells release a heat-stable peptide(s) that protects endothelial cells against apoptosis induced by TNF. Our results suggest that alveolar epithelial cells regulate the response of mesenchymal cells to factors that induce apoptosis during injury and repair.

Lovastatin induces apoptosis in malignant mesothelioma cells.

Malignant mesothelioma causes profound morbidity and nearly universal mortality that is refractory to conventional treatment with aggressive surgery, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy. We report that pharmacologic concentrations of lovastatin, a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase inhibitor, induced apoptosis in human malignant mesothelioma cell lines. Mesothelioma cell viability was decreased in a dose-dependent manner by lovastatin (5 to 30 microM). These effects were not reversed by exogenous growth factors or cholesterol, but were reversed by addition of 100 microM mevalonate, confirming that lovastatin affected mesothelioma viability by inhibiting mevalonate synthesis. Lovastatin appeared to decrease mesothelioma viability by inducing apoptosis, as indicated by morphologic changes, histologic evidence of nuclear condensation and degeneration, and flow-cytometric analysis of DNA content. Lovastatin's effects on cell viability were partially reversed in the presence of farnesol, and treatment of mesothelioma cells with a specific farnesyl-protein transferase (FTP) inhibitor decreased cell viability and induced morphologic changes indistinguishable from those caused by lovastatin. In addition, lovastatin-treated cells showed translocation of ras guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-binding proteins from membrane to cytosolic fractions on Western blots, suggesting that lovastatin's effects on mesothelioma were mediated in part by disrupting acylation of GTP-binding proteins. Thus, lovastatin is a commercially available and clinically well-tolerated agent that reduces viability and induces apoptosis of mesothelioma cells, and may provide the basis for adjunctive treatments of patients with mesothelioma.

Translational control of the antiapoptotic function of Ras.

Activated Ras has been shown to provide powerful antiapoptotic signals to cells through well defined transcriptional and post- translational pathways, whereas translational control as a mechanism of Ras survival signaling remains unexplored. Here we show a direct relationship between assembly of the cap-dependent translation initiation apparatus and suppression of apoptosis by oncogenic Ras in vitro and in vivo. Decreasing protein synthesis with rapamycin, which is known to inhibit cap-dependent translation, increases the susceptibility of Ras-transformed fibroblasts to cytostatic drug-induced apoptosis. In contrast, suppressing global protein synthesis with equipotent concentrations of cycloheximide actually prevents apoptosis. Enforced expression of the cap-dependent translational repressor, the eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF) 4E-binding protein (4E-BPI), sensitizes fibroblasts to apoptosis in a manner strictly dependent on its ability to sequester eIF4E from a translationally active complex with eIF4GI and the co-expression of oncogenic Ras. Ectopic expression of 4E-BP1 also promotes apoptosis of Ras-transformed cells injected into immunodeficient mice and markedly diminishes their tumorigenicity. These results establish that eIF4E-dependent protein synthesis is essential for survival of fibroblasts bearing oncogenic Ras and support the concept that activation of cap-dependent translation by extracellular ligands or intrinsic survival signaling molecules suppresses apoptosis, whereas synthesis of proteins mediating apoptosis can occur independently of the cap.