Type I interferon protects antiviral CD8+ T cells from NK cell cytotoxicity.

Despite development of new antiviral drugs, viral infections are still a major health problem. The most potent antiviral defense mechanism is the innate production of type I interferon (IFN-I), which not only limits virus replication but also promotes antiviral T cell immunity through mechanisms, which remain insufficiently studied. Using the murine lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus model system, we show here that IFN-I signaling on T cells prevented their rapid elimination in vivo. Microarray analyses uncovered that IFN-I triggered the expression of selected inhibitory NK-cell-receptor ligands. Consequently, T cell immunity of IFN-I receptor (IFNAR)-deficient T cells could be restored by NK cell depletion or in NK-cell-deficient hosts (Nfil3(-/-)). The elimination of Ifnar1(-/-) T cells was dependent on NK-cell-mediated perforin expression. In summary, we identified IFN-I as a key player regulating the protection of T cells against regulatory NK cell function.

Investigation of Fascin1, a Marker of Mature Dendritic Cells, Reveals a New Role for IL-6 Signaling in CCR7-Mediated Chemotaxis.

Migration of mature dendritic cells (DCs) to lymph nodes is critical for the initiation of adaptive immunity. CCR7, a G-protein-coupled receptor for CCL19/21 chemokines, is known to be essential for chemotaxis of mature DCs, but the molecular mechanism linking inflammation to chemotaxis remains unclear. We previously demonstrated that fascin1, an actin-bundling protein, increases chemotaxis of mature mouse DCs. In this article, we demonstrated that fascin1 enhanced IL-6 secretion and signaling of mature mouse DCs. Furthermore, we demonstrated that IL-6 signaling is required for chemotaxis. Blockage of IL-6 signaling in wild-type DCs with an anti-IL-6 receptor α (IL-6Rα) Ab inhibited chemotaxis toward CCL19. Likewise, knockout of IL-6Rα inhibited chemotaxis of bone marrow-derived DCs. The addition of soluble IL-6Rα and IL-6 rescued chemotaxis of IL-6Rα knockout bone marrow-derived DCs, underscoring the role of IL-6 signaling in chemotaxis. We found that IL-6 signaling is required for internalization of CCR7, the initial step of CCR7 recycling. CCR7 recycling is essential for CCR7-mediated chemotaxis, explaining why IL-6 signaling is required for chemotaxis of mature DCs. Our results have identified IL-6 signaling as a new regulatory pathway for CCR7/CCL19-mediated chemotaxis and suggest that rapid migration of mature DCs to lymph nodes depends on inflammation-associated IL-6 signaling.

IL-6 Trans-signaling Controls Liver Regeneration After Partial Hepatectomy.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is critically involved in liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy (PHX). Previous reports suggest that IL-6 trans-signaling through the soluble IL-6/IL-6R complex is involved in this process. However, the long-term contribution of IL-6 trans-signaling for liver regeneration after PHX is unknown. PHX-induced generation of the soluble IL-6R by ADAM (a disintegrin and metallo) proteases enables IL-6 trans-signaling, in which IL-6 forms an agonistic complex with the soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R) to activate all cells expressing the signal-transducing receptor chain glycoprotein 130 (gp130). In contrast, without activation of ADAM proteases, IL-6 in complex with membrane-bound IL-6R and gp130 activates classic signaling. Here, we describe the generation of IL-6 trans-signaling mice, which exhibit boosted IL-6 trans-signaling and abrogated classic signaling by genetic conversion of all membrane-bound IL-6R into sIL-6R proteins phenocopying hyperactivation of ADAM-mediated shedding of IL-6R as single substrate. Importantly, although IL-6R deficient mice were strongly affected by PHX, survival and regeneration of IL-6 trans-signaling mice was indistinguishable from control mice, demonstrating that IL-6 trans-signaling fully compensates for disabled classic signaling in liver regeneration after PHX. Moreover, we monitored the long-term consequences of global IL-6 signaling inhibition versus IL-6 trans-signaling selective blockade after PHX by IL-6 monoclonal antibodies and soluble glycoprotein 130 as fragment crystallizable fusion, respectively. Both global IL-6 blockade and selective inhibition of IL-6 trans-signaling results in a strong decrease of overall survival after PHX, accompanied by decreased signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 phosphorylation and proliferation of hepatocytes. Mechanistically, IL-6 trans-signaling induces hepatocyte growth factor production by hepatic stellate cells. Conclusion: IL-6 trans-signaling, but not classic signaling, controls liver regeneration following PHX.

B Cell-Mediated Maintenance of Cluster of Differentiation 169-Positive Cells Is Critical for Liver Regeneration.

The liver has an extraordinary capacity to regenerate through activation of key molecular pathways. However, central regulators controlling liver regeneration remain insufficiently studied. Here, we show that B cell-deficient animals failed to induce sufficient liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy (PHx). Consistently, adoptive transfer of B cells could rescue defective liver regeneration. B cell-mediated lymphotoxin beta production promoted recovery from PHx. Absence of B cells coincided with loss of splenic cluster of differentiation 169-positive (CD169+ ) macrophages. Moreover, depletion of CD169+ cells resulted in defective liver regeneration and decreased survival, which was associated with reduced hepatocyte proliferation. Mechanistically, CD169+ cells contributed to liver regeneration by inducing hepatic interleukin-6 (IL-6) production and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activation. Accordingly, treatment of CD169+ cell-depleted animals with IL-6/IL-6 receptor rescued liver regeneration and severe pathology following PHx. Conclusion: We identified CD169+ cells to be a central trigger for liver regeneration, by inducing key signaling pathways important for liver regeneration.

A firefly inspired one-pot chemiluminescence system using n-propylphosphonic anhydride (T3P).

A simple reaction procedure for chemiluminescence of firefly luciferin (D-luc) using n-propylphosphonic anhydride (T3P) is reported. A luminescent photon is produced as a result of one-pot reaction, only requiring mixing with the substrate carboxylic acid and T3P in the presence of a mild organic base.

iRhom2 inhibits bile duct obstruction-induced liver fibrosis.

Chronic liver disease can induce prolonged activation of hepatic stellate cells, which may result in liver fibrosis. Inactive rhomboid protein 2 (iRhom2) is required for the maturation of A disintegrin and metalloprotease 17 (ADAM17, also called TACE), which is responsible for the cleavage of membrane-bound tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and its receptors (TNFRs). Here, using the murine bile duct ligation (BDL) model, we showed that the abundance of iRhom2 and activation of ADAM17 increased during liver fibrosis. Consistent with this, concentrations of ADAM17 substrates were increased in plasma samples from mice after BDL and in patients suffering from liver cirrhosis. We observed increased liver fibrosis, accelerated disease progression, and an increase in activated stellate cells after BDL in mice lacking iRhom2 (Rhbdf2-/- ) compared to that in controls. In vitro primary mouse hepatic stellate cells exhibited iRhom2-dependent shedding of the ADAM17 substrates TNFR1 and TNFR2. In vivo TNFR shedding after BDL also depended on iRhom2. Treatment of Rhbdf2-/- mice with the TNF-α inhibitor etanercept reduced the presence of activated stellate cells and alleviated liver fibrosis after BDL. Together, these data suggest that iRhom2-mediated inhibition of TNFR signaling protects against liver fibrosis.

Soluble gp130 prevents interleukin-6 and interleukin-11 cluster signaling but not intracellular autocrine responses.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a proinflammatory cytokine of the IL-6 family, members of which signal through a complex of a cytokine-specific receptor and the signal-transducing subunit gp130. The interaction of IL-6 with the membrane-bound IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) and gp130 stimulates "classic signaling," whereas the binding of IL-6 and a soluble version of the IL-6R to gp130 stimulates "trans-signaling." Alternatively, "cluster signaling" occurs when membrane-bound IL-6:IL-6R complexes on transmitter cells activate gp130 receptors on neighboring receiver cells. The soluble form of gp130 (sgp130) is a selective trans-signaling inhibitor, but it does not affect classic signaling. We demonstrated that the interaction of soluble gp130 with natural and synthetic membrane-bound IL-6:IL-6R complexes inhibited IL-6 cluster signaling. Similarly, IL-11 cluster signaling through the IL-11R to gp130 was also inhibited by soluble gp130. However, autocrine classic and trans-signaling was not inhibited by extracellular inhibitors such as sgp130 or gp130 antibodies. Together, our results suggest that autocrine IL-6 signaling may occur intracellularly.

Deletions in the cytoplasmic domain of iRhom1 and iRhom2 promote shedding of the TNF receptor by the protease ADAM17.

The protease ADAM17 (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 17) catalyzes the shedding of various transmembrane proteins from the surface of cells, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and its receptors. Liberation of TNF receptors (TNFRs) from cell surfaces can dampen the cellular response to TNF, a cytokine that is critical in the innate immune response and promotes programmed cell death but can also promote sepsis. Catalytically inactive members of the rhomboid family of proteases, iRhom1 and iRhom2, mediate the intracellular transport and maturation of ADAM17. Using a genetic screen, we found that the presence of either iRhom1 or iRhom2 lacking part of their extended amino-terminal cytoplasmic domain (herein referred to as ΔN) increases ADAM17 activity, TNFR shedding, and resistance to TNF-induced cell death in fibrosarcoma cells. Inhibitors of ADAM17, but not of other ADAM family members, prevented the effects of iRhom-ΔN expression. iRhom1 and iRhom2 were functionally redundant, suggesting a conserved role for the iRhom amino termini. Cells from patients with a dominantly inherited cancer susceptibility syndrome called tylosis with esophageal cancer (TOC) have amino-terminal mutations in iRhom2. Keratinocytes from TOC patients exhibited increased TNFR1 shedding compared with cells from healthy donors. Our results explain how loss of the amino terminus in iRhom1 and iRhom2 impairs TNF signaling, despite enhancing ADAM17 activity, and may explain how mutations in the amino-terminal region contribute to the cancer predisposition syndrome TOC.