A weight of evidence approach to investigate potential common mechanisms in pesticide groups to support cumulative risk assessment: A case study with dinitroaniline pesticides.

In 2016, the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Office of Pesticide Programs published guidelines for establishing candidate common mechanism groups (CMGs) for cumulative risk assessment (CRA) weight-of-evidence-based screenings. A candidate CMG is a group of chemicals that may share similar structure, apical endpoints, and/or mechanistic data that suggest the potential for a common mechanism of toxicity among them. Here, a weight-of-evidence approach is presented to establish candidacy of a CMG for a group of nine dinitroaniline pesticides. This approach involves review of available in vivo toxicity information and literature to determine mode of action, along with analyses of in vitro toxicity data and chemical structure. Despite structural similarity among some dinitroanilines and some shared target organs identified through toxicity observed in in vivo studies, there were no consistencies among groups, suggesting lack of a common mechanism when all analyses are considered together. For example, two structurally similar compounds with thyroid/liver in vivo effects were not found active in any Toxicity Forecaster (ToxCast) in vitro assays. The weight-of-evidence is insufficient to support the testable hypothesis that dinitroanilines could form a CMG, and highlights the importance of establishing a consensus among multiple lines of evidence prior to CRA.

Polymerase η suppresses telomere defects induced by DNA damaging agents.

Telomeres at chromosome ends are normally masked from proteins that signal and repair DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). Bulky DNA lesions can cause DSBs if they block DNA replication, unless they are bypassed by translesion (TLS) DNA polymerases. Here, we investigated roles for TLS polymerase η, (polη) in preserving telomeres following acute physical UVC exposure and chronic chemical Cr(VI) exposure, which both induce blocking lesions. We report that polη protects against cytotoxicity and replication stress caused by Cr(VI), similar to results with ultraviolet C light (UVC). Both exposures induce ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) kinase and polη accumulation into nuclear foci and localization to individual telomeres, consistent with replication fork stalling at DNA lesions. Polη-deficient cells exhibited greater numbers of telomeres that co-localized with DSB response proteins after exposures. Furthermore, the genotoxic exposures induced telomere aberrations associated with failures in telomere replication that were suppressed by polη. We propose that polη's ability to bypass bulky DNA lesions at telomeres is critical for proper telomere replication following genotoxic exposures.

Integrative assessment of chlorine-induced acute lung injury in mice.

The genetic basis for the underlying individual susceptibility to chlorine-induced acute lung injury is unknown. To uncover the genetic basis and pathophysiological processes that could provide additional homeostatic capacities during lung injury, 40 inbred murine strains were exposed to chlorine, and haplotype association mapping was performed. The identified single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) associations were evaluated through transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling. Using ≥ 10% allelic frequency and ≥ 10% phenotype explained as threshold criteria, promoter SNPs that could eliminate putative transcriptional factor recognition sites in candidate genes were assessed by determining transcript levels through microarray and reverse real-time PCR during chlorine exposure. The mean survival time varied by approximately 5-fold among strains, and SNP associations were identified for 13 candidate genes on chromosomes 1, 4, 5, 9, and 15. Microarrays revealed several differentially enriched pathways, including protein transport (decreased more in the sensitive C57BLKS/J lung) and protein catabolic process (increased more in the resistant C57BL/10J lung). Lung metabolomic profiling revealed 95 of the 280 metabolites measured were altered by chlorine exposure, and included alanine, which decreased more in the C57BLKS/J than in the C57BL/10J strain, and glutamine, which increased more in the C57BL/10J than in the C57BLKS/J strain. Genetic associations from haplotype mapping were strengthened by an integrated assessment using transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling. The leading candidate genes associated with increased susceptibility to acute lung injury in mice included Klf4, Sema7a, Tns1, Aacs, and a gene that encodes an amino acid carrier, Slc38a4.

Haplotype association mapping of acute lung injury in mice implicates activin a receptor, type 1.

RATIONALE: Because acute lung injury is a sporadic disease produced by heterogeneous precipitating factors, previous genetic analyses are mainly limited to candidate gene case-control studies. OBJECTIVES: To develop a genome-wide strategy in which single nucleotide polymorphism associations are assessed for functional consequences to survival during acute lung injury in mice. METHODS: To identify genes associated with acute lung injury, 40 inbred strains were exposed to acrolein and haplotype association mapping, microarray, and DNA-protein binding were assessed. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The mean survival time varied among mouse strains with polar strains differing approximately 2.5-fold. Associations were identified on chromosomes 1, 2, 4, 11, and 12. Seven genes (Acvr1, Cacnb4, Ccdc148, Galnt13, Rfwd2, Rpap2, and Tgfbr3) had single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) associations within the gene. Because SNP associations may encompass "blocks" of associated variants, functional assessment was performed in 91 genes within ± 1 Mbp of each SNP association. Using 10% or greater allelic frequency and 10% or greater phenotype explained as threshold criteria, 16 genes were assessed by microarray and reverse real-time polymerase chain reaction. Microarray revealed several enriched pathways including transforming growth factor-ß signaling. Transcripts for Acvr1, Arhgap15, Cacybp, Rfwd2, and Tgfbr3 differed between the strains with exposure and contained SNPs that could eliminate putative transcriptional factor recognition sites. Ccdc148, Fancl, and Tnn had sequence differences that could produce an amino acid substitution. Mycn and Mgat4a had a promoter SNP or 3'untranslated region SNPs, respectively. Several genes were related and encoded receptors (ACVR1, TGFBR3), transcription factors (MYCN, possibly CCDC148), and ubiquitin-proteasome (RFWD2, FANCL, CACYBP) proteins that can modulate cell signaling. An Acvr1 SNP eliminated a putative ELK1 binding site and diminished DNA-protein binding. CONCLUSIONS: Assessment of genetic associations can be strengthened using a genetic/genomic approach. This approach identified several candidate genes, including Acvr1, associated with increased susceptibility to acute lung injury in mice.

Endothelial dysfunction and claudin 5 regulation during acrolein-induced lung injury.

An integral membrane protein, Claudin 5 (CLDN5), is a critical component of endothelial tight junctions that control pericellular permeability. Breaching of endothelial barriers is a key event in the development of pulmonary edema during acute lung injury (ALI). A major irritant in smoke, acrolein can induce ALI possibly by altering CLDN5 expression. This study sought to determine the cell signaling mechanism controlling endothelial CLDN5 expression during ALI. To assess susceptibility, 12 mouse strains were exposed to acrolein (10 ppm, 24 h), and survival monitored. Histology, lavage protein, and CLDN5 transcripts were measured in the lung of the most sensitive and resistant strains. CLDN5 transcripts and phosphorylation status of forkhead box O1 (FOXO1) and catenin (cadherin-associated protein) beta 1 (CTNNB1) proteins were determined in control and acrolein-treated human endothelial cells. Mean survival time (MST) varied more than 2-fold among strains with the susceptible (BALB/cByJ) and resistant (129X1/SvJ) strains (MST, 17.3 ± 1.9 h vs. 41.4 ± 5.1 h, respectively). Histological analysis revealed earlier perivascular enlargement in the BALB/cByJ than in 129X1/SvJ mouse lung. Lung CLDN5 transcript and protein increased more in the resistant strain than in the susceptible strain. In human endothelial cells, 30 nM acrolein increased CLDN5 transcripts and increased p-FOXO1 protein levels. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor LY294002 diminished the acrolein-induced increased CLDN5 transcript. Acrolein (300 nM) decreased CLDN5 transcripts, which were accompanied by increased FOXO1 and CTNNB1. The phosphorylation status of these transcription factors was consistent with the observed CLDN5 alteration. Preservation of endothelial CLDN5 may be a novel clinical approach for ALI therapy.

Spontaneous DNA damage to the nuclear genome promotes senescence, redox imbalance and aging.

Accumulation of senescent cells over time contributes to aging and age-related diseases. However, what drives senescence in vivo is not clear. Here we used a genetic approach to determine if spontaneous nuclear DNA damage is sufficient to initiate senescence in mammals. Ercc1-/∆ mice with reduced expression of ERCC1-XPF endonuclease have impaired capacity to repair the nuclear genome. Ercc1-/∆ mice accumulated spontaneous, oxidative DNA damage more rapidly than wild-type (WT) mice. As a consequence, senescent cells accumulated more rapidly in Ercc1-/∆ mice compared to repair-competent animals. However, the levels of DNA damage and senescent cells in Ercc1-/∆ mice never exceeded that observed in old WT mice. Surprisingly, levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were increased in tissues of Ercc1-/∆ mice to an extent identical to naturally-aged WT mice. Increased enzymatic production of ROS and decreased antioxidants contributed to the elevation in oxidative stress in both Ercc1-/∆ and aged WT mice. Chronic treatment of Ercc1-/∆ mice with the mitochondrial-targeted radical scavenger XJB-5-131 attenuated oxidative DNA damage, senescence and age-related pathology. Our findings indicate that nuclear genotoxic stress arises, at least in part, due to mitochondrial-derived ROS, and this spontaneous DNA damage is sufficient to drive increased levels of ROS, cellular senescence, and the consequent age-related physiological decline.

Integrative metabolome and transcriptome profiling reveals discordant energetic stress between mouse strains with differential sensitivity to acrolein-induced acute lung injury.

SCOPE: This investigation sought to better understand the metabolic role of the lung and to generate insights into the pathogenesis of acrolein-induced acute lung injury. A respiratory irritant, acrolein is generated by overheating cooking oils or by domestic cooking using biomass fuels, and is in environmental tobacco smoke, a health hazard in the restaurant workplace. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using SM/J (sensitive) and 129X1/SvJ (resistant) inbred mouse strains, the lung metabolome was integrated with the transcriptome profile before and after acrolein exposure. A total of 280 small molecules were identified and mean values (log 2 >0.58 or <-0.58, p<0.05) were considered different for between-strain comparisons or within-strain responses to acrolein treatment. At baseline, 24 small molecules increased and 33 small molecules decreased in the SM/J mouse lung as compared to 129X1/SvJ mouse lung. Notable among the increased compounds was malonylcarnitine. Following acrolein exposure, several molecules indicative of glycolysis and branched chain amino acid metabolism increased similarly in both strains, whereas SM/J mice were less effective in generating metabolites related to fatty acid ß-oxidation. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest management of energetic stress varies between these strains, and that the ability to evoke auxiliary energy generating pathways rapidly and effectively may be critical in enhancing survival during acute lung injury in mice.

Functional genomics of chlorine-induced acute lung injury in mice.

Acute lung injury can be induced indirectly (e.g., sepsis) or directly (e.g., chlorine inhalation). Because treatment is still limited to supportive measures, mortality remains high ( approximately 74,500 deaths/yr). In the past, accidental (railroad derailments) and intentional (Iraq terrorism) chlorine exposures have led to deaths and hospitalizations from acute lung injury. To better understand the molecular events controlling chlorine-induced acute lung injury, we have developed a functional genomics approach using inbred mice strains. Various mouse strains were exposed to chlorine (45 ppm x 24 h) and survival was monitored. The most divergent strains varied by more than threefold in mean survival time, supporting the likelihood of an underlying genetic basis of susceptibility. These divergent strains are excellent models for additional genetic analysis to identify critical candidate genes controlling chlorine-induced acute lung injury. Gene-targeted mice then could be used to test the functional significance of susceptibility candidate genes, which could be valuable in revealing novel insights into the biology of acute lung injury.