Childhood and Adolescent Relapsed/Refractory Aggressive B-Cell Lymphomas With t(8;14) and BCL2 Expression, Burkitt Lymphoma Versus Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma: A Diagnostic Challenge.

We present 2 diagnostically challenging cases of pediatric/adolescent relapsed/refractory aggressive mature B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL) within the spectrum of Burkitt lymphoma and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and illustrate the different therapeutic regimens that are employed for pediatric and adult cancer centers. Both cases displayed varying-sized lymphoma cells with occasional single prominent nucleoli and heterogeneous BCL2 expression. Cytogenetics revealed complex karyotypes with t(8:14)(q24.2;q32) and IGH::MYC rearrangement by FISH. Next generation sequencing revealed deleterious TP53 and MYC mutations. We concluded that both could be diagnosed as "DLBCL-NOS with MYC rearrangement" using the current pathologic classifications, 2022 International Consensus Classification (ICC) and World Health Organization Classifications of Haematolymphoid Tumors (WHO-HAEM5). This report illustrates diagnostic challenges and treatment dilemmas that may be encountered, particularly for adolescent and young adults (AYA).

Mediastinal Germ Cell Tumor and Acute Megakaryoblastic Leukemia With Co-occurring KRAS Mutation and Complex Cytogenetics.

Young males have a unique but rare predilection to develop mediastinal nonseminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCTs) and concomitant acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (AMKL). Common cytogenetic and molecular abnormalities such as isochromosome 12p and somatic Tumor Protein P53(TP53) and Phosphatase And Tensin Homolog (PTEN) mutations have been reported in the presumed mutual neoplastic clones of origin. We report the case of a 17-year-old male who presented with a mediastinal NSGCT with high-grade sarcomatous transformation and a diagnosis of AMKL approximately 4 months later. Next-generation sequencing revealed identical KRAS Proto-Oncogene, GTPase (KRAS) p.Ala146Thr, TP53 p.Leu257Pro, and PTEN p.Leu181Pro missense mutations at similar variant allele frequencies in both the NSGCT and AMKL samples. Cytogenetic and microarray analyses detected shared copy gains in all chromosomes except chromosomes 9, 13, and Y. Multiple additional clonal chromosomal alterations were detected in the AMKL sample when compared with the NSGCT. This case emphasizes the shared clonal origins of these malignancies and identifies KRAS and other copy number alterations as potential molecular drivers in a subset of these combined diseases.

Pediatric myeloid sarcoma: a single institution clinicopathologic and molecular analysis.

Myeloid sarcoma (MS) is a neoplastic condition composed of immature myeloid cells involving an extramedullary site. We investigated underlying chromosomal and molecular alterations to assess potential molecular markers of prognosis and outcome in this rare pediatric disease. We conducted a retrospective review of clinicopathologic and cytogenetic data from 33 pediatric patients with MS (ages 1 month-18 years) at our institution over a 32 year period (1984-2016). Tissue-based cancer microarray and targeted next-generation sequencing analysis were performed on six cases. The median age at diagnosis was 2.8 years with a male-to-female ratio of 2.6:1. MS is commonly presented with concomitant marrow involvement (n = 12, 36.4%) or as a recurrence of acute myeloid leukemia (AML; n = 14, 42.4%). The skin (n = 18, 54.5%) and soft tissue (n = 9, 27.3%) were the most common sites of involvement. Twenty-one of 25 samples (84.0%) harbored chromosomal aberrations; KMT2A alterations (n = 10, 40.0%) or complex cytogenetics (n = 7, 28.0%) were most frequent. Mutations in RAS, tyrosine kinase, cell signaling, and chromatin remodeling genes were detected. When compared to pediatric patients with AML without extramedullary involvement (EMI), inferior overall survival (OS) was observed (18.8 months vs. 89.3 months, p = .008). Pediatric patients with MS with non-favorable cytogenetics [abnormalities other than t(8;21), inv(16)/t(16;16), or t(15;17)] had a significantly lower OS compared to patients with AML with non-favorable cytogenetics and no extramedullary involvement (8.0 months vs. 28.1 months, p < .001). Pediatric MS is a rare disease with diverse clinical presentations. Non-favorable cytogenetics may be a poor prognostic marker for pediatric patients with MS and molecular diagnostics can assist with risk stratification and identify potentially actionable targets.

A clinicopathologic study of the spectrum of systemic forms of EBV-associated T-cell lymphoproliferative disorders of childhood: A single tertiary care pediatric institution experience in North America.

BACKGROUND: Systemic forms of EBV-associated T-cell lymphoproliferative disorders of childhood (S-EBV-T-LPD) comprise three major forms: EBV-positive hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (EBV-HLH), systemic EBV-positive T-cell lymphoma (S-EBV-TCL), and systemic chronic active EBV infection (S-CAEBV). These disorders occur rarely in children in Western countries. Here, we described eight children of such entities. DESIGN: Eight cases (six clinical and two autopsy) with S-EBV-T-LPD of childhood were retrospectively identified from 1990 to 2015. Clinicopathologic parameters including histomorphology, immunophenotype, EBV studies, and T-cell receptor gene rearrangement studies were recorded. RESULTS: Patients include five females and three males of Hispanic, Asian, and Caucasian origins with an age range of 14 months to 9 years. Fever, hepatosplenomegaly, cytopenias, abnormal EBV serologies, and very high EBV viral loads were common findings. Histologic findings showed EBV+ T-cell infiltrates with variable degrees of architectural distortion and cytologic atypia ranging from no to mild cytologic atypia to overt lymphoma and tissue hemophagocytosis. All showed aberrant CD4+ or CD8+ T cells with dim to absent CD5, CD7, and CD3, and bright CD2 and CD45 by flow cytometry or loss of CD5 by immunohistochemistry. TCR gene rearrangement studies showed monoclonal rearrangements in all clinical cases (6/6). Outcomes were poor with treatment consisting of chemotherapy per the HLH-94 or HLH-2004 protocols with or without bone marrow transplant. CONCLUSION: In this large pediatric clinicopathologic study of S-EBV-T-LPD of childhood in the United States, EBV-HLH, S-EBV-TCL, and S-CAEBV show many overlapping features. Diagnosis is challenging, and overall outcome is poor using current HLH-directed therapies.

Sustained remission with azacitidine monotherapy and an aberrant precursor B-lymphoblast population in juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia.

Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML) has a poor prognosis in general, with hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) remaining the standard of care for cure. The hypomethylating agent, azacitidine, has been used as a bridging therapy to transplant. However, no patients have been treated with azacitidine without an HSCT post azacitidine. We report on an infant with JMML with somatic KRAS G12A mutation and monosomy 7 who achieved sustained remission following azacitidine monotherapy. He also developed an aberrant B-lymphoblast population which declined with similar kinetics as his JMML-associated abnormalities, suggesting that a B-lymphoblast population in JMML does not always progress to acute leukemia.

Acute Megakaryoblastic Leukemia With Diffuse Periosteal Reaction of Bilateral Lower Extremities.

We report the case of a 3-year-old girl diagnosed with acute megakaryoblastic leukemia, who presented after >1 year of bilateral leg pain. At times the pain was severe enough to prevent ambulation, prompting visits to her primary care provider. However, it was not until acute respiratory failure occurred with subsequent hospitalization in the pediatric intensive care unit that severe anemia and thrombocytopenia were discovered and the diagnosis of acute myeloid leukemia was made. Bilateral lower extremity swelling was noted on admission and radiographs showed diffusely abnormal appearance of the long bones of her lower extremities with periosteal reaction and echogenic debris in the subperiosteal space, thought to represent leukemic cells. This case highlights the importance of recognizing atypical signs and symptoms of myelodysplastic syndrome progressing to acute leukemia in the context of abnormal bone pain and radiographic changes.

The use of BRAF V600E mutation-specific immunohistochemistry in pediatric Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

BRAF p.V600E mutations are detected in greater than 50% of pediatric Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) lesions. However, the use of mutation-specific BRAF V600E immunohistochemistry (IHC) as a surrogate for molecular testing in pediatric LCH is unknown. We tested the mutation-specific BRAF V600E monoclonal antibody (clone VE1) in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded LCH samples from 26 pediatric patients (14 males and 12 females, ages 7 mo-17 y) using allele-specific real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with a limit of detection of 0.5% as the comparative gold standard. BRAF VE1 staining was scored for both intensity (0-3+) and percentage of immunoreactive tumor cells (0%-100%). BRAF VE1 immunoreactivity was determined using both lenient (≥1+, ≥1%) and stringent (≥2+, ≥10%) scoring criteria. Using lenient-scoring criteria, we found that the sensitivity and specificity of IHC compared with allele-specific real-time PCR were 100.0% and 18.2%, respectively. The poor specificity of lenient IHC analysis was attributable to weak, 1+ staining in both BRAF-mutated and wild-type LCH. Using stringent-scoring criteria, we found that specificity improved to 100.0% at the expense of sensitivity that decreased to 80.0%. Stringent scoring generated 3 false-negative results, but in all cases, neoplastic tissue comprised less than 5% of the stained section and/or the specimen was decalcified. In conclusion, highly sensitive molecular assays remain the gold standard for BRAF mutation analysis in LCH paraffin-embedded lesions. To avoid false-positive results, unequivocal VE1 staining of 2+ intensity in greater than or equal to 10% neoplastic histiocytes is required. However, negative VE1 results require additional studies to exclude false-negatives, and stringent-scoring criteria may not be optimal for scant or decalcified specimens.

Therapy-related Acute Leukemia With Mixed Phenotype and Novel t(1: 6)(q25;p23) After Treatment for High-risk Neuroblastoma.

Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial malignancy of childhood. Patients with high-risk disease receive multimodal treatment including chemotherapy combinations containing alkylating agents and topoisomerase inhibitors with potential for inducing therapy-related malignancy later in life. Most commonly, cytogenetic changes of pediatric therapy-related myelodysplastic syndrome/acute myeloid leukemia involve chromosome 5 or 7. Here we report a novel case of therapy-related myelodysplastic syndrome/acute myeloid leukemia 30 months after treatment for high-risk neuroblastoma with biphenotypic cell surface markers and a not yet described translocation t(1;6)(q25;p23).

ALK Fusion in an Adolescent with Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Case Report and Review of the Literature.

Activating mutations and fusions of the ALK oncogene have been identified as drivers in a number of malignancies. Crizotinib and subsequent ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitors have improved treatment outcomes for these patients. In this paper, we discuss the case of an adolescent patient with acute myeloid leukemia, who was identified to have an activating ALK fusion, which is a rare finding and has never been reported in cases of AML without monosomy 7. Crizotinib was added to this patient's frontline therapy and was well tolerated. In cases of more common gene alterations, existing data supports the use of targeted agents as post-HSCT maintenance therapy; however, crizotinib was not able to be used post-HSCT for this patient due to the inability to obtain insurance coverage.

Significance of minimal residual disease in pediatric mixed phenotype acute leukemia: a multicenter cohort study.

The rarity of mixed phenotype acute leukemia (MPAL) has precluded adequate data to incorporate minimal residual disease (MRD) monitoring into therapy. Fluidity in MPAL classification systems further complicates understanding its biology and outcomes; this includes uncertainty surrounding the impact of shifting diagnostic requirements even between iterations of the World Health Organization (WHO) classification. Our primary objective was to address these knowledge gaps. To do so, we analyzed clinicopathologic features, therapy, MRD, and survival in a centrally-reviewed, multicenter cohort of MPAL uniformly diagnosed by the WHO classification and treated with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) regimens. ALL induction therapy achieved an EOI MRD negative (<0.01%) remission in most patients (70%). EOI MRD positivity was predictive of 5-year EFS (HR = 6.00, p < 0.001) and OS (HR = 9.57, p = 0.003). Patients who cleared MRD by EOC had worse survival compared with those EOI MRD negative. In contrast to adults with MPAL, ALL therapy without transplantation was adequate to treat most pediatric patients. Earlier MRD clearance was associated with better treatment success and survival. Prospective trials are now necessary to validate and refine MRD thresholds within the pediatric MPAL population and to identify salvage strategies for those with poor predicted survival.

A Rare Case of Pediatric Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Presenting With Severe Thrombocytosis Without Leukocytosis.

Pediatric chronic myelogenous leukemia is uncommon. We report a pediatric patient with chronic myelogenous leukemia presenting with a normal white blood cell count and no circulating immature myeloid cells. The patient presented with extreme thrombocytosis (platelet count range: 2175-3064 × 109/L) noted incidentally. No splenomegaly was found. Examination of the bone marrow aspirate revealed normal cellularity and normal myeloid: erythroid ratio with marked megakaryocytic hyperplasia. Molecular studies on the bone marrow aspirate detected both the major BCR/ABL1 p210 fusion transcript (9280 copies; p210/ ABL1 ratio: 38.2%) and the minor p190 transcript (below limit of quantitation). The platelet count normalized within 2 weeks after treatment with the second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitor dasatinib. Follow-up after 3 months revealed a 1.87 log reduction in p210 transcripts compared to diagnosis and no detectable p190 transcripts. This case highlights the need to include BCR/ABL1 fusion testing to accurately diagnose pediatric patients presenting with isolated thrombocytosis.

Investigating the Abscopal Effects of Radioablation on Shielded Bone Marrow in Rodent Models Using Multimodality Imaging.

The abscopal effect is the response to radiation at sites that are distant from the irradiated site of an organism, and it is thought to play a role in bone marrow (BM) recovery by initiating responses in the unirradiated bone marrow. Understanding the mechanism of this effect has applications in treating BM failure (BMF) and BM transplantation (BMT), and improving survival of nuclear disaster victims. Here, we investigated the use of multimodality imaging as a translational tool to longitudinally assess bone marrow recovery. We used positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and optical imaging to quantify bone marrow activity, vascular response and marrow repopulation in fully and partially irradiated rodent models. We further measured the effects of radiation on serum cytokine levels, hematopoietic cell counts and histology. PET/CT imaging revealed a radiation-induced increase in proliferation in the shielded bone marrow (SBM) compared to exposed bone marrow (EBM) and sham controls. T2-weighted MRI showed radiation-induced hemorrhaging in the EBM and unirradiated SBM. In the EBM and SBM groups, we found alterations in serum cytokine and hormone levels and in hematopoietic cell population proportions, and histological evidence of osteoblast activation at the bone marrow interface. Importantly, we generated a BMT mouse model using fluorescent-labeled bone marrow donor cells and performed fluorescent imaging to reveal the migration of bone marrow cells from shielded to radioablated sites. Our study validates the use of multimodality imaging to monitor bone marrow recovery and provides evidence for the abscopal response in promoting bone marrow recovery after irradiation.

Are micromegakaryocytes specific for refractory cytopenia of childhood (RCC)? A study of 38 pediatric patients with thrombocytopenia unrelated to RCC.

BACKGROUND: Micromegakaryocytes (microMKs) are considered the most reliable dysplastic feature for myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), particularly refractory cytopenia of childhood (RCC); there is no minimal threshold for the diagnosis of RCC. Since most RCC patients present with thrombocytopenia, the presence of microMKs should raise concern for MDS/RCC. This study attempted to investigate the prevalence of microMKs and associated marrow fibrosis in patients with thrombocytopenia unrelated to MDS/RCC and the need for establishing a threshold for microMKs for the diagnosis of MDS/RCC. DESIGN: Bone marrow biopsies of pediatric patients with thrombocytopenia unrelated to RCC were examined for microMKs and fibrosis by CD61 immunohistochemical and reticulin stains respectively. RESULT: Thirty eight patients (1-18 years old) were included: 33 immune thrombocytopenia (ITP), 3 chronic thrombocytopenia, and 2 inherited macrothrombocytopenia. Fourteen cases (37%) had microMKs; four cases showed increased marrow fibrosis associated with microMKs (two had ITP and two had macrothrombocytopenia). All patients are alive and none developed MDS (follow up: 3months to 4 years). CONCLUSION: MicroMKs can be seen in pediatric patients with thrombocytopenia unrelated to RCC. Hence the mere presence of microMKs is insufficient for the diagnosis of RCC in the pediatric population, and a quantitative threshold needs to be established.

Mixed-phenotype acute leukemia (MPAL) exhibits frequent mutations in DNMT3A and activated signaling genes.

Mixed-phenotype acute leukemia (MPAL) is a heterogeneous group of poor-prognosis leukemias with immunophenotypic features of at least two cell lineages. The full spectrum of genetic mutations in this rare disease has not been elucidated, limiting our understanding of disease pathogenesis and our ability to devise targeted therapeutic strategies. Here, we sought to define the mutational landscape of MPAL by performing whole-exome sequencing on samples from 23 adult and pediatric MPAL patients. We identified frequent mutations of epigenetic modifiers, most notably mutations of DNMT3A, in 33% of adult MPAL patients. Mutations of activated signaling pathways, tumor suppressors, and transcription factors were also frequent. Importantly, many of the identified mutations are potentially therapeutically targetable, with agents currently available or in various stages of clinical development. Therefore, the mutational spectrum that we have identified provides potential biological insights and is likely to have clinical relevance for patients with this poor-prognosis disease.

Mapping Radiation Injury and Recovery in Bone Marrow Using 18F-FLT PET/CT and USPIO MRI in a Rat Model.

UNLABELLED: We present and test the use of multimodality imaging as a topological tool to map the amount of the body exposed to ionizing radiation and the location of exposure, which are important indicators of survival and recovery. To achieve our goal, PET/CT imaging with 3'-deoxy-3'-(18)F-fluorothymidine ((18)F-FLT) was used to measure cellular proliferation in bone marrow (BM), whereas MRI using ultra-small superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO) particles provided noninvasive information on radiation-induced vascular damage. METHODS: Animals were x-ray-irradiated at a dose of 7.5 Gy with 1 of 3 radiation schemes-whole-body irradiation, half-body shielding (HBS), or 1-leg shielding (1LS)-and imaged repeatedly. The spatial information from the CT scan was used to segment the region corresponding to BM from the PET scan using algorithms developed in-house, allowing for quantification of proliferating cells, and BM blood volume was estimated by measuring the changes in the T2 relaxation rates (ΔR2) collected from MR scans. RESULTS: (18)F-FLT PET/CT imaging differentiated irradiated from unirradiated BM regions. Two days after irradiation, proliferation of 1LS animals was significantly lower than sham (P = 0.0001, femurs; P < 0.0001, tibias) and returned to sham levels by day 10 (P = 0.6344, femurs; P = 0.3962, tibias). The degree of shielding affected proliferation recovery, showing an increase in the irradiated BM of the femurs, but not the tibias, of HBS animals when compared with 1LS (P = 0.0310, femurs; P = 0.5832, tibias). MRI of irradiated spines detected radiation-induced BM vascular damage, measured by the significant increase in ΔR2 2 d after whole-body irradiation (P = 0.0022) and HBS (P = 0.0003) with a decreasing trend of values, returning to levels close to baseline over 10 d. Our data were corroborated using γ-counting and histopathology. CONCLUSION: We demonstrated that (18)F-FLT PET/CT and USPIO MRI are valuable tools in mapping regional radiation exposure and the effects of radiation on BM. Analysis of the (18)F-FLT signal allowed for a clear demarcation of exposed BM regions and elucidated the kinetics of BM recovery, whereas USPIO MRI was used to assess vascular damage and recovery.

Expression of CD25 is a specific and relatively sensitive marker for the Philadelphia chromosome (BCR-ABL1) translocation in pediatric B acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Precursor B acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) is the most common cancer in children and overall, has an excellent prognosis. However, the Philadelphia chromosome translocation (Ph+), t(9;22)(q34;q11), is present in a small subset of patients and confers poor outcomes. CD25 (IL-2 receptor alpha chain) expression has been associated with Ph+ B-ALL in adults, but no similar study has been performed in pediatric B-ALL. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of 221 consecutive pediatric patients with a diagnosis of B-ALL (blood and/or bone marrow) from 2009 to 2012 was performed to determine an association between Ph+ B-ALL and CD25 expression. A threshold of 25% was used to define positive cases for CD25 expression by flow cytometry. RESULTS: There were 221 patients with a diagnosis of B-ALL ranging from 2 to 22 years (median, 6 years). Eight (3.6%) B-ALL patients were positive for the Philadelphia chromosome translocation (Ph+ B-ALL) and 213 were negative (Ph-negative B-ALL). CD25 expression was observed in 6 of 8 (75%) Ph+ B-ALL patients and 6 of 213 (2.8%) Ph-negative B-ALL patients. CD25 expression was significantly higher in Ph+ B-ALL compared to Ph-negative B-ALL, with median CD25 expression of 64% (range 0-93%) and 0.1% (range 0-91%), respectively (P ≤ 0.0002). Therefore, CD25 expression as a predictor of Ph+ B-ALL had 75% sensitivity, 97% specificity, 50% positive predictive value and 99% negative predictive value. CONCLUSIONS: CD25 expression is a specific and relatively sensitive marker for the identification of Ph+ B-ALL in the pediatric population.