Complete integration of carbene-transfer chemistry into biosynthesis.

Biosynthesis is an environmentally benign and renewable approach that can be used to produce a broad range of natural and, in some cases, new-to-nature products. However, biology lacks many of the reactions that are available to synthetic chemists, resulting in a narrower scope of accessible products when using biosynthesis rather than synthetic chemistry. A prime example of such chemistry is carbene-transfer reactions1. Although it was recently shown that carbene-transfer reactions can be performed in a cell and used for biosynthesis2,3, carbene donors and unnatural cofactors needed to be added exogenously and transported into cells to effect the desired reactions, precluding cost-effective scale-up of the biosynthesis process with these reactions. Here we report the access to a diazo ester carbene precursor by cellular metabolism and a microbial platform for introducing unnatural carbene-transfer reactions into biosynthesis. The α-diazoester azaserine was produced by expressing a biosynthetic gene cluster in Streptomyces albus. The intracellularly produced azaserine was used as a carbene donor to cyclopropanate another intracellularly produced molecule-styrene. The reaction was catalysed by engineered P450 mutants containing a native cofactor with excellent diastereoselectivity and a moderate yield. Our study establishes a scalable, microbial platform for conducting intracellular abiological carbene-transfer reactions to functionalize a range of natural and new-to-nature products and expands the scope of organic products that can be produced by cellular metabolism.

Low-grade Chronic Inflammation: A Shared Mechanism for Chronic Diseases.

Inflammation is an important physiological response of the organism to restore homeostasis upon pathogenic or damaging stimuli. However, persistence of the harmful trigger, or a deficient resolution of the process can evolve into a state of low-grade, chronic inflammation. This condition is strongly associated to the development of several increasingly prevalent and serious chronic conditions such as obesity, cancer and cardiovascular diseases, elevating overall morbidity and mortality worldwide. The current pandemic of chronic diseases underscores the need to address chronic inflammation, its pathogenic mechanisms and potential preventive measures to limit its current widespread impact. The present review discusses the current knowledge and research gaps regarding the association between low-grade chronic inflammation and chronic diseases, focusing on obesity, cardiovascular diseases, digestive diseases and cancer. We examine the state-of-the-art in selected aspects of the topic, and propose future directions and approaches for the field.

Enantio- and Diastereodivergent Cyclopropanation of Allenes by Directed Evolution of an Iridium-Containing Cytochrome.

Alkylidene cyclopropanes (ACPs) are valuable synthetic intermediates because of their constrained structure and opportunities for further diversification. Although routes to ACPs are known, preparations of ACPs with control of both the configuration of the cyclopropyl (R vs S) group and the geometry of the alkene (E vs Z) are unknown. We describe enzymatic cyclopropanation of allenes with ethyl diazoacetate (EDA) catalyzed by an iridium-containing cytochrome (Ir(Me)-CYP119) that controls both stereochemical elements. Two mutants of Ir(Me)-CYP119 identified by 6-codon (6c, VILAFG) saturation mutagenesis catalyze the formation of (E)-ACPs with -93% to >99% ee and >99:1 E/Z ratio with just three rounds of 96 mutants. By four additional rounds of mutagenesis, an enzyme variant was identified that forms (Z)-ACPs with up to 94% ee and a 28:72 E/Z ratio. Computational studies show that the orientation of the carbene unit dictated by the mutated positions accounts for the stereoselectivity.

Co-Culture of P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum Synergistically Elevates IL-6 Expression via TLR4 Signaling in Oral Keratinocytes.

Periodontitis, characterized by persistent inflammation in the periodontium, is intricately connected to systemic diseases, including oral cancer. Bacteria, such as Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum, play a pivotal role in periodontitis development because they contribute to dysbiosis and tissue destruction. Thus, comprehending the interplay between these bacteria and their impacts on inflammation holds significant relevance in clinical understanding and treatment advancement. In the present work, we explored, for the first time, their impacts on the expressions of pro-inflammatory mediators after infecting oral keratinocytes (OKs) with a co-culture of pre-incubated P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum. Our results show that the co-culture increases IL-1ß, IL-8, and TNF-α expressions, synergistically augments IL-6, and translocates NF-kB to the cell nucleus. These changes in pro-inflammatory mediators-associated with chronic inflammation and cancer-correlate with an increase in cell migration following infection with the co-cultured bacteria or P. gingivalis alone. This effect depends on TLR4 because TLR4 knockdown notably impacts IL-6 expression and cell migration. Our study unveils, for the first time, crucial insights into the outcomes of their co-culture on virulence, unraveling the role of bacterial interactions in polymicrobial diseases and potential links to oral cancer.

Helicobacter pylori outer membrane vesicles induce astrocyte reactivity through nuclear factor-κappa B activation and cause neuronal damage in vivo in a murine model.

BACKGROUND: Helicobacter pylori (Hp) infects the stomach of 50% of the world's population. Importantly, chronic infection by this bacterium correlates with the appearance of several extra-gastric pathologies, including neurodegenerative diseases. In such conditions, brain astrocytes become reactive and neurotoxic. However, it is still unclear whether this highly prevalent bacterium or the nanosized outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) they produce, can reach the brain, thus affecting neurons/astrocytes. Here, we evaluated the effects of Hp OMVs on astrocytes and neurons in vivo and in vitro. METHODS: Purified OMVs were characterized by mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Labeled OMVs were administered orally or injected into the mouse tail vein to study OMV-brain distribution. By immunofluorescence of tissue samples, we evaluated: GFAP (astrocytes), ßIII tubulin (neurons), and urease (OMVs). The in vitro effect of OMVs in astrocytes was assessed by monitoring NF-κB activation, expression of reactivity markers, cytokines in astrocyte-conditioned medium (ACM), and neuronal cell viability. RESULTS: Urease and GroEL were prominent proteins in OMVs. Urease (OMVs) was present in the mouse brain and its detection coincided with astrocyte reactivity and neuronal damage. In vitro, OMVs induced astrocyte reactivity by increasing the intermediate filament proteins GFAP and vimentin, the plasma membrane αVß3 integrin, and the hemichannel connexin 43. OMVs also produced neurotoxic factors and promoted the release of IFNγ in a manner dependent on the activation of the transcription factor NF-κB. Surface antigens on reactive astrocytes, as well as secreted factors in response to OMVs, were shown to inhibit neurite outgrowth and damage neurons. CONCLUSIONS: OMVs administered orally or injected into the mouse bloodstream reach the brain, altering astrocyte function and promoting neuronal damage in vivo. The effects of OMVs on astrocytes were confirmed in vitro and shown to be NF-κB-dependent. These findings suggest that Hp could trigger systemic effects by releasing nanosized vesicles that cross epithelial barriers and access the CNS, thus altering brain cells.

Protein kinase B (AKT) upregulation and Thy-1-αvß3 integrin-induced phosphorylation of Connexin43 by activated AKT in astrogliosis.

BACKGROUND: In response to brain injury or inflammation, astrocytes undergo hypertrophy, proliferate, and migrate to the damaged zone. These changes, collectively known as "astrogliosis", initially protect the brain; however, astrogliosis can also cause neuronal dysfunction. Additionally, these astrocytes undergo intracellular changes involving alterations in the expression and localization of many proteins, including αvß3 integrin. Our previous reports indicate that Thy-1, a neuronal glycoprotein, binds to this integrin inducing Connexin43 (Cx43) hemichannel (HC) opening, ATP release, and astrocyte migration. Despite such insight, important links and molecular events leading to astrogliosis remain to be defined. METHODS: Using bioinformatics approaches, we analyzed different Gene Expression Omnibus datasets to identify changes occurring in reactive astrocytes as compared to astrocytes from the normal mouse brain. In silico analysis was validated by both qRT-PCR and immunoblotting using reactive astrocyte cultures from the normal rat brain treated with TNF and from the brain of a hSOD1G93A transgenic mouse model. We evaluated the phosphorylation of Cx43 serine residue 373 (S373) by AKT and ATP release as a functional assay for HC opening. In vivo experiments were also performed with an AKT inhibitor (AKTi). RESULTS: The bioinformatics analysis revealed that genes of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway were among the most significantly altered in reactive astrocytes. mRNA and protein levels of PI3K, AKT, as well as Cx43, were elevated in reactive astrocytes from normal rats and from hSOD1G93A transgenic mice, as compared to controls. In vitro, reactive astrocytes stimulated with Thy-1 responded by activating AKT, which phosphorylated S373Cx43. Increased pS373Cx43 augmented the release of ATP to the extracellular medium and AKTi inhibited these Thy-1-induced responses. Furthermore, in an in vivo model of inflammation (brain damage), AKTi decreased the levels of astrocyte reactivity markers and S373Cx43 phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS: Here, we identify changes in the PI3K/AKT molecular signaling network and show how they participate in astrogliosis by regulating the HC protein Cx43. Moreover, because HC opening and ATP release are important in astrocyte reactivity, the phosphorylation of Cx43 by AKT and the associated increase in ATP release identify a potential therapeutic window of opportunity to limit the adverse effects of astrogliosis.

Prostaglandin E2 Exposure Disrupts E-Cadherin/Caveolin-1-Mediated Tumor Suppression to Favor Caveolin-1-Enhanced Migration, Invasion, and Metastasis in Melanoma Models.

Caveolin-1 (CAV1) is a membrane-bound protein that suppresses tumor development yet also promotes metastasis. E-cadherin is important in CAV1-dependent tumor suppression and prevents CAV1-enhanced lung metastasis. Here, we used murine B16F10 and human A375 melanoma cells with low levels of endogenous CAV1 and E-cadherin to unravel how co-expression of E-cadherin modulates CAV1 function in vitro and in vivo in WT C57BL/6 or Rag-/- immunodeficient mice and how a pro-inflammatory environment generated by treating cells with prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) alters CAV1 function in the presence of E-cadherin. CAV1 expression augmented migration, invasion, and metastasis of melanoma cells, and these effects were abolished via transient co-expression of E-cadherin. Importantly, exposure of cells to PGE2 reverted the effects of E-cadherin expression and increased CAV1 phosphorylation on tyrosine-14 and metastasis. Moreover, PGE2 administration blocked the ability of the CAV1/E-cadherin complex to prevent tumor formation. Therefore, our results support the notion that PGE2 can override the tumor suppressor potential of the E-cadherin/CAV1 complex and that CAV1 released from the complex is phosphorylated on tyrosine-14 and promotes migration/invasion/metastasis. These observations provide direct evidence showing how a pro-inflammatory environment caused here via PGE2 administration can convert a potent tumor suppressor complex into a promoter of malignant cell behavior.

The GPI-Anchored Protein Thy-1/CD90 Promotes Wound Healing upon Injury to the Skin by Enhancing Skin Perfusion.

Wound healing is a highly regulated multi-step process that involves a plethora of signals. Blood perfusion is crucial in wound healing and abnormalities in the formation of new blood vessels define the outcome of the wound healing process. Thy-1 has been implicated in angiogenesis and silencing of the Thy-1 gene retards the wound healing process. However, the role of Thy-1 in blood perfusion during wound closure remains unclear. We proposed that Thy-1 regulates vascular perfusion, affecting the healing rate in mouse skin. We analyzed the time of recovery, blood perfusion using Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging, and tissue morphology from images acquired with a Nanozoomer tissue scanner. The latter was assessed in a tissue sample taken with a biopsy punch on several days during the wound healing process. Results obtained with the Thy-1 knockout (Thy-1-/-) mice were compared with control mice. Thy-1-/- mice showed at day seven, a delayed re-epithelialization, increased micro- to macro-circulation ratio, and lower blood perfusion in the wound area. In addition, skin morphology displayed a flatter epidermis, fewer ridges, and almost no stratum granulosum or corneum, while the dermis was thicker, showing more fibroblasts and fewer lymphocytes. Our results suggest a critical role for Thy-1 in wound healing, particularly in vascular dynamics.

Polycystin-1 Is a Crucial Regulator of BIN1 Expression and T-Tubule Remodeling Associated with the Development of Dilated Cardiomyopathy.

Cardiomyopathy is commonly observed in patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), even when they have normal renal function and arterial pressure. The role of cardiomyocyte polycystin-1 (PC1) in cardiovascular pathophysiology remains unknown. PC1 is a potential regulator of BIN1 that maintains T-tubule structure, and alterations in BIN1 expression induce cardiac pathologies. We used a cardiomyocyte-specific PC1-silenced (PC1-KO) mouse model to explore the relevance of cardiomyocyte PC1 in the development of heart failure (HF), considering reduced BIN1 expression induced T-tubule remodeling as a potential mechanism. PC1-KO mice exhibited an impairment of cardiac function, as measured by echocardiography, but no signs of HF until 7-9 months of age. Of the PC1-KO mice, 43% died suddenly at 7 months of age, and 100% died after 9 months with dilated cardiomyopathy. Total BIN1 mRNA, protein levels, and its localization in plasma membrane-enriched fractions decreased in PC1-KO mice. Moreover, the BIN1 + 13 isoform decreased while the BIN1 + 13 + 17 isoform was overexpressed in mice without signs of HF. However, BIN1 + 13 + 17 overexpression was not observed in mice with HF. T-tubule remodeling and BIN1 score measured in plasma samples were associated with decreased PC1-BIN1 expression and HF development. Our results show that decreased PC1 expression in cardiomyocytes induces dilated cardiomyopathy associated with diminished BIN1 expression and T-tubule remodeling. In conclusion, positive modulation of BIN1 expression by PC1 suggests a novel pathway that may be relevant to understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to cardiomyopathy in ADPKD patients.

Helicobacter pylori Outer Membrane Vesicles and Extracellular Vesicles from Helicobacter pylori-Infected Cells in Gastric Disease Development.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived vesicles important in intercellular communication that play an essential role in host-pathogen interactions, spreading pathogen-derived as well as host-derived molecules during infection. Pathogens can induce changes in the composition of EVs derived from the infected cells and use them to manipulate their microenvironment and, for instance, modulate innate and adaptive inflammatory immune responses, both in a stimulatory or suppressive manner. Gastric cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide and infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is considered the main risk factor for developing this disease, which is characterized by a strong inflammatory component. EVs released by host cells infected with H. pylori contribute significantly to inflammation, and in doing so promote the development of disease. Additionally, H. pylori liberates vesicles, called outer membrane vesicles (H. pylori-OMVs), which contribute to atrophia and cell transformation in the gastric epithelium. In this review, the participation of both EVs from cells infected with H. pylori and H. pylori-OMVs associated with the development of gastric cancer will be discussed. By deciphering which functions of these external vesicles during H. pylori infection benefit the host or the pathogen, novel treatment strategies may become available to prevent disease.

A New Smoothened Antagonist Bearing the Purine Scaffold Shows Antitumour Activity In Vitro and In Vivo.

The Smoothened (SMO) receptor is the most druggable target in the Hedgehog (HH) pathway for anticancer compounds. However, SMO antagonists such as vismodegib rapidly develop drug resistance. In this study, new SMO antagonists having the versatile purine ring as a scaffold were designed, synthesised, and biologically tested to provide an insight to their mechanism of action. Compound 4s was the most active and the best inhibitor of cell growth and selectively cytotoxic to cancer cells. 4s induced cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, a reduction in colony formation and downregulation of PTCH and GLI1 expression. BODIPY-cyclopamine displacement assays confirmed 4s is a SMO antagonist. In vivo, 4s strongly inhibited tumour relapse and metastasis of melanoma cells in mice. In vitro, 4s was more efficient than vismodegib to induce apoptosis in human cancer cells and that might be attributed to its dual ability to function as a SMO antagonist and apoptosis inducer.

The 5' untranslated region of the anti-apoptotic protein Survivin contains an inhibitory upstream AUG codon.

Survivin (BIRC5) is an anti-apoptotic protein that is important in cancer. Mechanisms responsible for controlling Survivin levels in cells include transcriptional regulation and modulation of protein stability via post-translational modifications; however to date, translational control has been poorly studied. Here, we focused particularly on the primary control elements present in the Survivin 5' untranslated region (5'UTR). Bioinformatic analysis of ribosome occupancy on the Survivin 5'UTR revealed the presence of elongating ribosomes upstream of the canonical initiator AUG, suggesting an alternative upstream initiator AUG (uAUG) might exist. This uAUG was found out-of-frame at position -71 and appeared as a conserved element in mammals. RACE analysis revealed different transcriptional start sites for BIRC5, which indicated that translational control by this uAUG is restricted to longer 5'UTR variants. We studied the activity of the uAUG in different cell types by cloning the Survivin 5'UTR DNA sequence (wild-type and mutated variants) upstream of renilla luciferase (RLuc) into a pcDNA3 plasmid. Changes in RLuc activity were determined by luminescence assays and Western blotting. Results showed that when this uAUG was mutated to AUU or AGG in the cloned Survivin 5'UTR, RLuc activity was significantly increased. Similar results were obtained when uAUG was positioned inframe with the RLuc initiator AUG. Immunodetection of Renilla (35 kDa) by Western blotting revealed the presence of a second band (37 kDa approximately) in cells transfected with the Inframe reporter constructs, indicating that the uAUG was functional in our experimental conditions. In conclusion, our experimental data demonstrate the presence of an alternative and inhibitory initiator uAUG in the Survivin 5' UTR. This inhibitory uAUG may help understanding how Survivin expression is downregulated under physiological or pathological conditions.

Pro-fibrotic effect of oxidized LDL in cardiac myofibroblasts.

Inflammatory signals associated with cardiac diseases trigger trans-differentiation of cardiac fibroblasts to cardiac myofibroblasts. Cardiac myofibroblasts are the main cell type involved in the development of cardiac fibrosis, a diffuse and disproportionate accumulation of collagen in the myocardium. Although the role of the scavenger like-lectin receptor LOX-1 was previously investigated in cardiac fibroblasts and fibrosis, the involvement of the LOX-1 ligand -oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)- on cardiac myofibroblast function still remains unexplored. In the present work, we investigated the effect of oxLDL/LOX-1 on fibrotic markers and cardiac myofibroblast function. Our in vitro results showed that oxLDL increased cardiac myofibroblast proliferation, triggered an increase in the synthesis of collagen type I and fibronectin containing extra domain A, and stimulated collagen type I secretion. oxLDL also decreased cardiac myofibroblast migration, collagen gel contraction and cell area, without modifying α-smooth muscle actin protein levels. These effects were dependent on LOX-1, because LOX-1 knockdown abolished oxLDL effects. Collectively these data showed that oxLDL has important modulatory effects on cardiac myofibroblast function.

Syndecan-4/PAR-3 signaling regulates focal adhesion dynamics in mesenchymal cells.

BACKGROUND: Syndecans regulate cell migration thus having key roles in scarring and wound healing processes. Our previous results have shown that Thy-1/CD90 can engage both αvß3 integrin and Syndecan-4 expressed on the surface of astrocytes to induce cell migration. Despite a well-described role of Syndecan-4 during cell movement, information is scarce regarding specific Syndecan-4 partners involved in Thy-1/CD90-stimulated cell migration. METHODS: Mass spectrometry (MS) analysis of complexes precipitated with the Syndecan-4 cytoplasmic tail peptide was used to identify potential Syndecan-4-binding partners. The interactions found by MS were validated by immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assays. The conducted research employed an array of genetic, biochemical and pharmacological approaches, including: PAR-3, Syndecan-4 and Tiam1 silencing, active Rac1 GEFs affinity precipitation, and video microscopy. RESULTS: We identified PAR-3 as a Syndecan-4-binding protein. Its interaction depended on the carboxy-terminal EFYA sequence present on Syndecan-4. In astrocytes where PAR-3 expression was reduced, Thy-1-induced cell migration and focal adhesion disassembly was impaired. This effect was associated with a sustained Focal Adhesion Kinase activation in the siRNA-PAR-3 treated cells. Our data also show that Thy-1/CD90 activates Tiam1, a PAR-3 effector. Additionally, we found that after Syndecan-4 silencing, Tiam1 activation was decreased and it was no longer recruited to the membrane. Syndecan-4/PAR-3 interaction and the alteration in focal adhesion dynamics were validated in mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells, thereby identifying this novel Syndecan-4/PAR-3 signaling complex as a general mechanism for mesenchymal cell migration involved in Thy-1/CD90 stimulation. CONCLUSIONS: The newly identified Syndecan-4/PAR-3 signaling complex participates in Thy-1/CD90-induced focal adhesion disassembly in mesenchymal cells. The mechanism involves focal adhesion kinase dephosphorylation and Tiam1 activation downstream of Syndecan-4/PAR-3 signaling complex formation. Additionally, PAR-3 is defined here as a novel adhesome-associated component with an essential role in focal adhesion disassembly during polarized cell migration. These novel findings uncover signaling mechanisms regulating cell migration, thereby opening up new avenues for future research on Syndecan-4/PAR-3 signaling in processes such as wound healing and scarring.

Gold nanoparticle based double-labeling of melanoma extracellular vesicles to determine the specificity of uptake by cells and preferential accumulation in small metastatic lung tumors.

BACKGROUND: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have shown great potential for targeted therapy, as they have a natural ability to pass through biological barriers and, depending on their origin, can preferentially accumulate at defined sites, including tumors. Analyzing the potential of EVs to target specific cells remains challenging, considering the unspecific binding of lipophilic tracers to other proteins, the limitations of fluorescence for deep tissue imaging and the effect of external labeling strategies on their natural tropism. In this work, we determined the cell-type specific tropism of B16F10-EVs towards cancer cell and metastatic tumors by using fluorescence analysis and quantitative gold labeling measurements. Surface functionalization of plasmonic gold nanoparticles was used to promote indirect labeling of EVs without affecting size distribution, polydispersity, surface charge, protein markers, cell uptake or in vivo biodistribution. Double-labeled EVs with gold and fluorescent dyes were injected into animals developing metastatic lung nodules and analyzed by fluorescence/computer tomography imaging, quantitative neutron activation analysis and gold-enhanced optical microscopy. RESULTS: We determined that B16F10 cells preferentially take up their own EVs, when compared with colon adenocarcinoma, macrophage and kidney cell-derived EVs. In addition, we were able to detect the preferential accumulation of B16F10 EVs in small metastatic tumors located in lungs when compared with the rest of the organs, as well as their precise distribution between tumor vessels, alveolus and tumor nodules by histological analysis. Finally, we observed that tumor EVs can be used as effective vectors to increase gold nanoparticle delivery towards metastatic nodules. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide a valuable tool to study the distribution and interaction of EVs in mice and a novel strategy to improve the targeting of gold nanoparticles to cancer cells and metastatic nodules by using the natural properties of malignant EVs.

Loss of Caveolin-1 Is Associated with a Decrease in Beta Cell Death in Mice on a High Fat Diet.

Elevated free fatty acids (FFAs) impair beta cell function and reduce beta cell mass as a consequence of the lipotoxicity that occurs in type 2 diabetes (T2D). We previously reported that the membrane protein caveolin-1 (CAV1) sensitizes to palmitate-induced apoptosis in the beta pancreatic cell line MIN6. Thus, our hypothesis was that CAV1 knock-out (CAV1 KO) mice subjected to a high fat diet (HFD) should suffer less damage to beta cells than wild type (WT) mice. Here, we evaluated the in vivo response of beta cells in the pancreatic islets of 8-week-old C57Bl/6J CAV1 KO mice subjected to a control diet (CD, 14% kcal fat) or a HFD (60% kcal fat) for 12 weeks. We observed that CAV1 KO mice were resistant to weight gain when on HFD, although they had high serum cholesterol and FFA levels, impaired glucose tolerance and were insulin resistant. Some of these alterations were also observed in mice on CD. Interestingly, KO mice fed with HFD showed an adaptive response of the pancreatic beta cells and exhibited a significant decrease in beta cell apoptosis in their islets compared to WT mice. These in vivo results suggest that although the CAV1 KO mice are metabolically unhealthy, they adapt better to a HFD than WT mice. To shed light on the possible signaling pathway(s) involved, MIN6 murine beta cells expressing (MIN6 CAV) or not expressing (MIN6 Mock) CAV1 were incubated with the saturated fatty acid palmitate in the presence of mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors. Western blot analysis revealed that CAV1 enhanced palmitate-induced JNK, p38 and ERK phosphorylation in MIN6 CAV1 cells. Moreover, all the MAPK inhibitors partially restored MIN6 viability, but the effect was most notable with the ERK inhibitor. In conclusion, our results suggest that CAV1 KO mice adapted better to a HFD despite their altered metabolic state and that this may at least in part be due to reduced beta cell damage. Moreover, they indicate that the ability of CAV1 to increase sensitivity to FFAs may be mediated by MAPK and particularly ERK activation.

Association of high 5-hydroxymethylcytosine levels with Ten Eleven Translocation 2 overexpression and inflammation in Sjögren's syndrome patients.

Here, we determined the 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC), 5-methylcytosine (5mC), Ten Eleven Translocation (TETs), and DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) levels in epithelial and inflammatory cells of labial salivary glands (LSG) from Sjögren's syndrome (SS)-patients and the effect of cytokines on HSG cells. LSG from SS-patients, controls and HSG cells incubated with cytokines were analysed. Levels of 5mC, 5hmC, DNMTs, TET2 and MeCP2 were assessed by immunofluorescence. In epithelial cells from SS-patients, an increase in TET2, 5hmC and a decrease in 5mC and MeCP2 were observed, additionally, high levels of 5mC and DNMTs and low levels of 5hmC were detected in inflammatory cells. Cytokines increased TET2 and 5hmC and decreased 5mC levels. Considering that the TET2 gene.promoter contains response elements for transcription factors activated by cytokines, together to in vitro results suggest that changes in DNA hydroxymethylation, resulting from altered levels of TET2 are likely to be relevant in the Sjögren's syndrome etiopathogenesis.

Impaired IRE1α/XBP-1 pathway associated to DNA methylation might contribute to salivary gland dysfunction in Sjögren's syndrome patients.

Objectives: Labial salivary glands (LSGs) of SS patients show alterations related to endoplasmic reticulum stress. Glandular dysfunction could be partly the consequence of an altered inositol-requiring enzyme 1α (IRE1α)/X box-binding protein 1 (XBP-1) signalling pathway of the unfolded protein response, which then regulates genes involved in biogenesis of the secretory machinery. This study aimed to determine the expression, promoter methylation and localization of the IRE1α/XBP-1 pathway components in LSGs of SS patients and also their expression induced by IFN-γ in vitro. Methods: IRE1α, XBP-1 and glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) mRNA and protein levels were measured by qPCR and western blot, respectively, in LSGs of SS patients (n = 47) and control subjects (n = 37). Methylation of promoters was evaluated by methylation-sensitive high resolution melting, localization was analysed by immunofluorescence and induction of the IRE1α/XBP-1 pathway components by IFN-γ was evaluated in 3D acini. Results: A significant decrease of IRE1α, XBP-1u, XBP-1s, total XBP-1 and GRP78 mRNAs was observed in LSGs of SS patients, which was correlated with increased methylation levels of their respective promoters, and consistently the protein levels for IRE1α, XBP-1s and GRP78 were observed to decrease. IFN-γ decreased the mRNA and protein levels of XBP-1s, IRE1α and GRP78, and increased methylation of their promoters. Significant correlations were also found between IRE1α/XBP-1 pathway components and clinical parameters. Conclusion: Decreased mRNA levels for IRE1α, XBP-1 and GRP78 can be partially explained by hypermethylation of their promoters and is consistent with chronic endoplasmic reticulum stress, which may explain the glandular dysfunction observed in LSGs of SS patients. Additionally, glandular stress signals, including IFN-γ, could modulate the expression of the IRE1α/XBP-1 pathway components.

Intracellular Ca2+ Increases and Connexin 43 Hemichannel Opening Are Necessary but Not Sufficient for Thy-1-Induced Astrocyte Migration.

Under pro-inflammatory conditions, astrocytes become reactive and acquire a migratory phenotype. Our results show that hemichannels formed by connexin 43 (Cx43) play an important role in Thy-1-induced astrocyte migration. The neuronal protein Thy-1 binds to αvß3 integrin in astrocytes, thereby leading to intricate signaling pathways that include calcium (Ca2+) release from intracellular stores, opening of Cx43 hemichannels, release of ATP, activation of P2X7 receptor, and Ca2+ influx. However, because these Thy-1 effects occur exclusively in reactive astrocytes, we wondered whether by elevating calcium levels and promoting hemichannel opening we could prompt non-reactive astrocytes to respond to Thy-1. Cx43 immunoreactivity increased at juxta-membrane sites, where hemichannels (not gap junctions) participate in astrocyte polarization and migration stimulated by Thy-1. Also, intracellular Ca2+ increase, due to ionomycin treatment, induced hemichannel opening, but activated astrocyte migration only partially, and this limitation was overcome by pre-treatment with tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and Thy-1. Finally, αvß3 integrin formed membrane clusters after TNF stimulation or overexpression of ß3 integrin. We suggest that these microclusters are required for cells to respond to Thy-1 stimulation. Therefore, the large increase in intracellular Ca2+ and hemichannel opening induced by ionomycin are required, but not sufficient, to permit Thy-1-induced astrocyte migration. Thus, we suggest that proinflammatory stimuli prompt astrocytes to respond to migratory signals of neuronal cells.