Could soil microplastic pollution exacerbate climate change? A meta-analysis of greenhouse gas emissions and global warming potential.

Microplastics pollution and climate change are primarily investigated in isolation, despite their joint threat to the environment. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are emitted during: the production of plastic and rubber, the use and degradation of plastic, and after contamination of environment. This is the first meta-analysis to assess underlying causal relationships and the influence of likely mediators. We included 60 peer-reviewed empirical studies; estimating GHGs emissions effect size and global warming potential (GWP), according to key microplastics properties and soil conditions. We investigated interrelationships with microbe functional gene expression. Overall, microplastics contamination was associated with increased GHGs emissions, with the strongest effect (60%) on CH4 emissions. Polylactic-acid caused 32% higher CO2 emissions, but only 1% of total GWP. Phenol-formaldehyde had the greatest (175%) GWP via 182% increased N2O emissions. Only polystyrene resulted in reduced GWP by 50%, due to N2O mitigation. Polyethylene caused the maximum (60%) CH4 emissions. Shapes of microplastics differed in GWP: fiber had the greatest GWP (66%) whereas beads reduced GWP by 53%. Films substantially increased emissions of all GHGs: 14% CO2, 10% N2O and 60% CH4. Larger-sized microplastics had higher GWP (125%) due to their 9% CO2 and 63% N2O emissions. GWP rose sharply if soil microplastics content exceeded 0.5%. Higher CO2 emissions, ranging from 4% to 20%, arose from soil which was either fine, saturated or had high-carbon content. Higher N2O emissions, ranging from 10% to 95%, arose from soils that had either medium texture, saturated water content or low-carbon content. Both CO2 and N2O emissions were 43%-56% higher from soils with neutral pH. We conclude that microplastics contamination can cause raised GHGs emissions, posing a risk of exacerbating climate-change. We show clear links between GHGs emissions, microplastics properties, soil characteristics and soil microbe functional gene expression. Further research is needed regarding underlying mechanisms and processes.

Responses of rubber leaf phenology to climatic variations in Southwest China.

The phenology of rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) could be influenced by meteorological factors and exhibits significant changes under different geoclimates. In the sub-optimal environment in Xishuangbanna, rubber trees undergo lengthy periods of defoliation and refoliation. The timing of refoliation from budburst to leaf aging could be affected by powdery mildew disease (Oidium heveae), which negatively impacts seed and latex production. Rubber trees are most susceptible to powdery mildew disease at the copper and leaf changing stages. Understanding and predicting leaf phenology of rubber trees are helpful to develop effective means of controlling the disease. This research investigated the effect of several meteorological factors on different leaf phenological stages in a sub-optimal environment for rubber cultivation in Jinghong, Yunnan in Southwest China. Partial least square regression was used to quantify the relationship between meteorological factors and recorded rubber phenologies from 2003 to 2011. Minimum temperature in December was found to be the critical factor for the leaf phenology development of rubber trees. Comparing the delayed effects of minimum temperature, the maximum temperature, diurnal temperature range, and sunshine hours were found to advancing leaf phenologies. A comparatively lower minimum temperature in December would facilitate the advancing of leaf phenologies of rubber trees. Higher levels of precipitation in February delayed the light green and the entire process of leaf aging. Delayed leaf phenology was found to be related to severe rubber powdery mildew disease. These results were used to build predictive models that could be applied to early warning systems of rubber powdery mildew disease.

Evaluation of key meteorological determinants of wintering and flowering patterns of five rubber clones in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China.

All rubber tree clones (Hevea brasiliensis) exhibit regular annual wintering characterized by senescence and abscission of leaves. After 3-4 weeks, this is followed by the onset of new leaves. It is likely that the timing of leaf onset affects the susceptibility of rubber trees to rubber powdery mildew disease, as this predominantly infests young leaves. However, little information is available on the phenological behavior of different rubber clones, or how meteorological factors affect such behavior. We assessed the wintering and flowering patterns of five rubber clones in Xishuangbanna, southwest China, based on observations made from 1978 to 2011, and evaluated how these patterns responded to different meteorological factors. Partial least squares regression was used to analyze the timing of defoliation, refoliation, and flowering. Our results showed that the two clones RRIM 600 and GT1 defoliated during the last week of December and refoliated in the last week of January, and clones Yunyan 277-5, Yunyan 34-4, and PR 107 defoliated during the first week of January and refoliated in the second week of February. The number of hours of sunshine during both the rainy season and the cold dry period in the dry season were important determinants of phenological changes in the rubber trees. Similarly, higher temperatures tended to delay the onset of defoliation and refoliation, and were a triggering factor for the onset of flowering. These results may help rubber cultivators to schedule appropriate disease control measures, as well as to design hybridization programs aiming at the production of clones which are resistant to foliar disease.

Herbarium specimens show contrasting phenological responses to Himalayan climate.

Responses by flowering plants to climate change are complex and only beginning to be understood. Through analyses of 10,295 herbarium specimens of Himalayan Rhododendron collected by plant hunters and botanists since 1884, we were able to separate these responses into significant components. We found a lack of directional change in mean flowering time over the past 45 y of rapid warming. However, over the full 125 y of collections, mean flowering time shows a significant response to year-to-year changes in temperature, and this response varies with season of warming. Mean flowering advances with annual warming (2.27 d earlier per 1 °C warming), and also is delayed with fall warming (2.54 d later per 1 °C warming). Annual warming may advance flowering through positive effects on overwintering bud formation, whereas fall warming may delay flowering through an impact on chilling requirements. The lack of a directional response suggests that contrasting phenological responses to temperature changes may obscure temperature sensitivity in plants. By drawing on large collections from multiple herbaria, made over more than a century, we show how these data may inform studies even of remote localities, and we highlight the increasing value of these and other natural history collections in understanding long-term change.

Chilling and heat requirements for flowering in temperate fruit trees.

Climate change has affected the rates of chilling and heat accumulation, which are vital for flowering and production, in temperate fruit trees, but few studies have been conducted in the cold-winter climates of East Asia. To evaluate tree responses to variation in chill and heat accumulation rates, partial least squares regression was used to correlate first flowering dates of chestnut (Castanea mollissima Blume) and jujube (Zizyphus jujube Mill.) in Beijing, China, with daily chill and heat accumulation between 1963 and 2008. The Dynamic Model and the Growing Degree Hour Model were used to convert daily records of minimum and maximum temperature into horticulturally meaningful metrics. Regression analyses identified the chilling and forcing periods for chestnut and jujube. The forcing periods started when half the chilling requirements were fulfilled. Over the past 50 years, heat accumulation during tree dormancy increased significantly, while chill accumulation remained relatively stable for both species. Heat accumulation was the main driver of bloom timing, with effects of variation in chill accumulation negligible in Beijing's cold-winter climate. It does not seem likely that reductions in chill will have a major effect on the studied species in Beijing in the near future. Such problems are much more likely for trees grown in locations that are substantially warmer than their native habitats, such as temperate species in the subtropics and tropics.

Preliminary exploration of herbal tea products based on traditional knowledge and hypotheses concerning herbal tea selection: a case study in Southwest Guizhou, China.

BACKGROUND: Herbal tea usually refers to "beverage plants that do not belong to the genus Camellia", and it holds a significant historical legacy as a traditional beverage among specific regions and ethnic groups. In light of this, our research aims to investigate and analyze the traditional knowledge pertaining to herbal tea plants used by local people in the Qianxinan Buyi and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou Province. We also initiated preliminary efforts to create tea products from herbal tea leaves using various processing techniques. Additionally, we attempted to test hypotheses to elucidate how local people select herbal tea plants. METHODS: Data related to the use of herbal tea plants in this study were collected through semi-structured interviews and participatory observations in four villages in Qianxinan. Quantitative indicators, including the relative frequency of citation (RFC) and the relative importance (RI) value, were calculated, and the availability of plants was also evaluated. General linear model was performed to examine the relationship between the frequency of citation and resource availability, as well as the correlation between the relative frequency of citation and the relative importance, to test both the resource availability hypothesis and the versatility hypothesis. Centella asiatica tea was processed using techniques from green tea, black tea and white tea, with a preliminary sensory evaluation conducted. RESULTS: A total of 114 plant species were documented as being used for herbal teas by local residents, representing 60 families and 104 genera. Of these, 61% of herbal tea plants were found growing in the wild, and 11 species were exotic plants. The family with the highest number of species was Asteraceae (20 species). The study identified 33 major medicinal functions of herbal tea, with clearing heat-toxin and diuresis being the most common functions. General linear model revealed a strong correlation (correlation coefficient of 0.72, p < 0.001) between the frequency of citation and plant availability, as well as a significant correlation (correlation coefficient of 0.63, p < 0.001) between RFC and RI. Under different processing conditions, the characteristics of Centella asiatica tea exhibited variations and were found to be suitable for consumption. CONCLUSION: The consumption of herbal tea serves as a preventive measure against common ailments for local residents. The resource availability hypothesis, diversification hypothesis and the versatility hypothesis were shown to provide some insight into "how and why local communities select plants for use." Exotic herbal tea plants in the study area also possess valuable therapeutic properties. The processing and production of Centella asiatica herbal tea products hold promising prospects.

Flowering phenology of tree rhododendron along an elevation gradient in two sites in the Eastern Himalayas.

Flowering phenology of tree rhododendron (Rhododendron arboreum Sm.) was monitored in situ along elevation gradients in two distinct ecological settings. Observations were carried out in Gaoligong Nature Reserve (GNR) in China and in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA) in Nepal. Using the crown density method, flowering events of the selected species were recorded. Flowering duration and synchrony were determined within each site and along the elevation gradient in each study area. Our observations showed high synchrony throughout the elevation gradient, especially for peak flowering. Mean 15-day soil temperature, soil parameters (soil moisture, nitrogen, organic matter and pH), age of the observed trees, and site characteristics (litter cover, canopy cover, inclination) were related to mean initial and peak flowering dates using partial least squares regression (PLS). Results differed between the two sites, but winter temperature was the most important variable affecting the regression model for both initial flowering and peak flowering at both sites. After temperature, soil moisture was the most important variable for explaining initial flowering dates. The distribution of tree rhododendron indicates that it is able to grow in a wide range of habitats with different environmental conditions. The recent trend of rising winter-spring temperature and the detected bloom-advancing effect of high temperatures during this period suggest that tree rhododendron might expand its distributional range in response to global warming.

Seedling survival after simulating grazing and drought for two species from the Pamirs, northwestern China.

For plant populations to persist, seedling recruitment is essential, requiring seed germination, seedling survival and growth. Drought and grazing potentially reduce seedling recruitment via increased mortality and reduced growth. We studied these seed-related processes for two species indigenous to the Pamir Mountains of Xinjiang in northwestern China: Saussurea glacialis and Plantago lessingii. Seeds collected from Taxkorgan, Xinjiang, had a viability rate of 15.8% for S. glacialis but 100% for P. lessingii. Of the viable seeds, the highest germination rates were 62.9% for S. glacialis and 45.6% for P. lessingii. In a greenhouse experiment, we imposed a series of stressful conditions, involving a combination of simulated grazing and drought events. These had the most severe impact on younger seedlings. Modelling showed that 89% of S. glacialis mortality was due to early simulated grazing, whereas 80% of P. lessingii mortality was due to early simulated drought. Physiological differences could contribute to their differing resilience. S. glacialis may rely on water storage in leaves to survive drought events, but showed no shifts in biomass allocation that would improve grazing tolerance. P. lessingii appears more reliant on its root system to survive grazing, but the root reserves of younger plants could be insufficient to grow deeper in response to drought. After applying all mortality factors, 17.7 seedlings/parent of P. lessingii survived, while only <0.1 seedlings/parent of S. glacialis survived, raising concerns for its capacity to persist in the Pamirs. Inherent genetic differences may underlie the two species' contrasting grazing and drought responses. Thus, differing conservation strategies are required for their utilization and protection.

Global warming pushes the distribution range of the two alpine 'glasshouse' Rheum species north- and upwards in the Eastern Himalayas and the Hengduan Mountains.

Alpine plants' distribution is being pushed higher towards mountaintops due to global warming, finally diminishing their range and thereby increasing the risk of extinction. Plants with specialized 'glasshouse' structures have adapted well to harsh alpine environments, notably to the extremely low temperatures, which makes them vulnerable to global warming. However, their response to global warming is quite unexplored. Therefore, by compiling occurrences and several environmental strata, we utilized multiple ensemble species distribution modeling (eSDM) to estimate the historical, present-day, and future distribution of two alpine 'glasshouse' species Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Thomson and R. alexandrae Batalin. Rheum nobile was predicted to extend its distribution from the Eastern Himalaya (EH) to the Hengduan Mountains (HM), whereas R. alexandrae was restricted exclusively in the HM. Both species witnessed a northward expansion of suitable habitats followed by a southerly retreat in the HM region. Our findings reveal that both species have a considerable range shift under different climate change scenarios, mainly triggered by precipitation rather than temperature. The model predicted northward and upward migration for both species since the last glacial period which is mainly due to expected future climate change scenarios. Further, the observed niche overlap between the two species presented that they are more divergent depending on their habitat, except for certain regions in the HM. However, relocating appropriate habitats to the north and high elevation may not ensure the species' survival, as it needs to adapt to the extreme climatic circumstances in alpine habitats. Therefore, we advocate for more conservation efforts in these biodiversity hotspots.

Antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activities of traditional fermented Rosa from Dali Bai communities, Northwest Yunnan, China.

Traditional fermented Rosa (TFR) is a typical food and medical product among the Dali Bai people, and its popularity is growing. A few studies have looked into TFR's medicinal advantages, linked germplasm resources, traditional processing procedures, and functional food qualities. Our goal was to look into Rosa's traditional processing, examine the dominant strains in TFR, and prove how these strains affected antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activities. We used a snowball selection strategy to pick 371 informants for a semi-structured interview, supplemented with direct observations and sample collection. A microbial strain was isolated and identified from a TFR sample collected in the field. We synthesized TFR in the lab using the traditional way. Both of 2, 2-diphenyl-1 picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging and tyrosinase inhibitory properties of the fermented solution of Rosa 'Dianhong' have been tested in this study. Altogether 15 species belonging to the genus Rosa, which are utilized in herbal medicine and fermented foods. Rosa 'Dianhong' was the Bai community's principal species with considerable cultural value and consumption. Raw Rosa petals included 15 major flavonoids and phenols, which were identified as TFR's active components. TFR-1 was discovered to be the dominating microbial strain in TFR, increasing total phenolic and flavonoid content in the fermented solution of Rosa 'Dianhong' by 0.45 mg GAE/ml and 0.60 mg RE/ml, respectively, after 30 days. TFR-1 also exhibited promising activity in terms of DPPH free radical scavenging and tyrosinase inhibition. TFR showed potent antioxidant and free-radical scavenger properties and is beneficial in skincare and nutrition, according to the findings. TFR's medicinal and edible properties suggest that it could be used as a cosmetic or nutraceutical product.

Reusing wasteroot of Rubia wallichiana dyeing from Monpa of Tibet in China.

Humans have dyed textiles and leather, colored food, and paint body parts using natural dyes throughout history. Natural dyes have suffered drastically due to recent socioeconomic changes and replacement with synthetic dye in the textile industry. Hence, it is urgent to study indigenous dye plants and dyeing craft in local communities to protect these resources' potential ecological, economic, and cultural values. In 11 Monpa villages of Mêdog County, South-east Tibet, China, we conducted field research to record the indigenous method of cloth dyeing using madder dye. An aqueous extract of the root of Rubia wallichiana is a traditional madder dye. In this study, we used traditional dye and ethyl alcohol extract of the residue of aqueous extract. Two fabrics were dyed with the extractions in the presence of one of the metallic mordants or biomordants. Pigment compounds from aqueous extraction of madder and ethyl alcohol extraction of recycled madder were evaluated using Phytochemical, UV-visible spectroscopy, and FTIR test. We carried out One-way ANOVA and Duncan's new multiple range method to analyze different dying approaches and conditions. The dyed fabrics were evaluated by indicators of color strength and fastness, including washing, rubbing, and perspiration. The findings revealed the potentiality of biomordants to improve the dyeing properties of madder. The dyeing properties of recycled madder were marginally better than traditional madder. The results revealed the feasibility of enhancing the dyeing property and reuse of the residue from madder dyeing. The improved dyeing and reuse of residue can improve local ecological, economic benefits, and cultural heritage while applying research findings for the subsequent commercialization of plant dyes.

Climate-Fungal Pathogen Modeling Predicts Loss of Up to One-Third of Tea Growing Areas.

Climate change will affect numerous crops in the future; however, perennial crops, such as tea, are particularly vulnerable. Climate change will also strongly influence fungal pathogens. Here, we predict how future climatic conditions will impact tea and its associated pathogens. We collected data on the three most important fungal pathogens of tea (Colletotrichum acutatum, Co. camelliae, and Exobasidium vexans) and then modeled distributions of tea and these fungal pathogens using current and projected climates. The models show that baseline tea-growing areas will become unsuitable for Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (15 to 32% loss) and C. sinensis var. assamica (32 to 34% loss) by 2050. Although new areas will become more suitable for tea cultivation, existing and potentially new fungal pathogens will present challenges in these areas, and they are already under other land-use regimes. In addition, future climatic scenarios suitable range of fungal species and tea suitable cultivation (respectively in CSS and CSA) growing areas are Co. acutatum (44.30%; 31.05%), Co. camelliae (13.10%; 10.70%), and E. vexans (10.20%; 11.90%). Protecting global tea cultivation requires innovative approaches that consider fungal genomics as part and parcel of plant pathology.

Nutrient value of wild fodder species and the implications for improving the diet of mithun (Bos frontalis) in Dulongjiang area, Yunnan Province, China.

Wild fodder plants are valuable because they provide an important livestock feed resource globally, especially for smallholder farmers, and have important roles in natural resource management. In-depth knowledge of wild forage plants can motivate local people for feed resource and habitat conservation of threatened herbivores such as Mithun (Bos frontalis). Mithun occur in small patches in the mountains of Dulongjiang, nearby villagers domesticated this animal but left animal to freely graze in the mountains. Many fodder plants occur in these mountains, however, little is known about their nutritional value. We conducted an ethnobotanical survey to document important wild fodder plants consumed by mithun in the Dulongjiang Township. The nutritional content of 21 highly mentioned wild fodder plants in an ethnobotanical survey was examined. Laboratory analysis showed that Fagopyrum dibotrys were the fodder species with the highest crude protein (CP) content (26.89%), followed by Polygonum molle (21.88%) and Hydrangea longipes (21.12%). Synthesis of relative feed value index and grey relational grade, P. molle, H. longipes and Tetrastigma obtectum were ranked the top three nutritional fodders. There was a significant difference between 21 species on their in vitro digestibility and the most highly digestible fodder species was Elatostema hookerianum. Linear model analysis on relationship between frequency of citation of 21 wild forage plants by local farmers and their nutrient composition showed that the frequency was significantly positively correlated with the nutritional value of the feed (R2 = 0.28, P < 0.05). We concluded that these species have high nutritional values to improve mithun production in integrated crop-livestock systems. Fodder species or mixtures of species with useful nutritional characters could be cultivated to improve livestock productivity, habitat conservation including that of mithun and wild forage resource management.

Regional trade of medicinal plants has facilitated the retention of traditional knowledge: case study in Gilgit-Baltistan Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: The ethnic groups in Gilgit-Baltistan have been utilizing local resources in their centuries-old traditional healing system. Most tribes within these ethnic groups still rely on traditional healing systems. We aim to understand the current status, uses, and abundance of medicinal plants, associated traditional knowledge, and trade. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study incorporated over 300 local community members (70% men and 30% women) in focused group discussions, semi-structured interviews, and homework assignments for 8th to 12th grade students to document traditional knowledge (TK) in six districts in Northeast Pakistan. We calculated various indices such as informant consensus factor, use value, relative frequency of citation, and CoKriging. These indices, along with repetitively used medicinal plants, were used to analyze differences in studied locations. RESULTS: Most of the community members still rely on traditional medication in the study areas. However, we found the highest number of medicinal plants used in Skardu and Gilgit compared to other districts and these two districts also represent trade centers and a highly populated area regarding medicinal plants. Results indicate connection amongst the surveyed villages signifying mixing of knowledge from different sources, with certain areas more influenced by traditional Chinese medicine and others more by Ayurveda and Unani. CONCLUSION: TK is mostly retained with elder community members; however, those directly linked with market value chain retain rich knowledge on traditional use of the medicinal plants from the region. Major trade centers in the region also coincide with a high density of medicinal plant occurrence, knowledge, and higher utilization. Therefore, with the increasing trade in medicinal plant in the region, there is potential for rejuvenation of this knowledge and of plant use in the region.

Determining bioclimatic space of Himalayan alder for agroforestry systems in Nepal.

Himalayan alder species are proven to be very useful in traditional as well as contemporary agroforestry practice. These nitrogen-fixing trees are also useful in the land restoration. Therefore, understanding the distribution of Himalayan alder and the potential zone for plantation is meaningful in the agroforestry sector. Suitable climatic zones of Alnus spp. were modelled in MaxEnt software using a subset of least correlated bioclimatic variables for current conditions (1950-2000), topographic variables (DEM derived) and Landuse Landcover (LULC) data. We generated several models and selected the best model against random models using ANOVA and t-test. The environmental variables that best explained the current distribution of the species were identified and used to project into the future. For future projections, ensemble scenarios of climate change projection derived from the results of 19 Earth System Models (ESM) were used. Our model revealed that the most favorable conditions for Alnus nepalensis are in central Nepal in the moist north-west facing slope, whereas for Alnus nitida they are in western Nepal. The major climatic factor that contributes to Alnus species distribution in Nepal appears to be precipitation during the warmest quarter for A. nepalensis and precipitation during the driest quarter for A. nitida. Future projections revealed changes in the probability distribution of these species, as well as where they need conservation and where they can be planted. Also, our model predicts that the distribution of Alnus spp. in hilly regions will remain unchanged, and therefore may represent sites that can be used to revitalize traditional agroforestry systems and extract source material for land restoration.

Response to climate change of montane herbaceous plants in the genus Rhodiola predicted by ecological niche modelling.

Climate change profoundly influences species distributions. These effects are evident in poleward latitudinal range shifts for many taxa, and upward altitudinal range shifts for alpine species, that resulted from increased annual global temperatures since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ca. 22,000 BP). For the latter, the ultimate consequence of upward shifts may be extinction as species in the highest alpine ecosystems can migrate no further, a phenomenon often characterized as "nowhere to go". To predict responses to climate change of the alpine plants on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP), we used ecological niche modelling (ENM) to estimate the range shifts of 14 Rhodiola species, beginning with the Last Interglacial (ca. 120,000-140,000 BP) through to 2050. Distributions of Rhodiola species appear to be shaped by temperature-related variables. The southeastern QTP, and especially the Hengduan Mountains, were the origin and center of distribution for Rhodiola, and also served as refugia during the LGM. Under future climate scenario in 2050, Rhodiola species might have to migrate upward and northward, but many species would expand their ranges contra the prediction of the "nowhere to go" hypothesis, caused by the appearance of additional potential habitat concomitant with the reduction of permafrost with climate warming.

The implications of ritual practices and ritual plant uses on nature conservation: a case study among the Naxi in Yunnan Province, Southwest China.

BACKGROUND: Conservation of biodiversity is primary important of today's critically vulnerable environment. Efficient conservation can be possible only with the long-term participation and understanding of the communities. Ritual beliefs of the indigenous people are one of the important tools to understand the local communities and aid the nature conservation. In this paper, we documented contemporary ritual practices and ritual plant uses among the Naxi people and discussed the importance of traditional knowledge on ritual practice in the conservation of plants in the mountains presenting a case study of the Dongba culture. METHODS: This study was carried out from July in 2013 to July in 2014. To document and analyze the present state of the ritual plant used by the Naxi people we conducted an ethnobotanical survey. We interviewed local people including Dongba priests using the semi-structured questionnaire. During the field study, we participated in the local religious activities to witness the use of different plants in ritual activities of the Naxi people. We interviewed twenty-two key informants and eleven of them were male. All the specimens of documented species were collected and deposited at the herbarium of Kunming Institute of Botany. RESULTS: The survey results revealed the Naxi people possessed sound knowledge of the traditional ritual plants and great diversity of plants used in many of Naxi rituals and festivals. From the survey, we documented 32 ritual plant species belonging to 24 genera of 17 families used in various ritual activities. The ritual plants were grouped into two categories, namely those burned as incense, and those used for decoration. The incense plants like Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata and Pistacia weinmanniifolia were probably promising natural aromatic resource. Plants of genus Quercus were the most frequently used species. The places for ritual activities were diverse, such as the incense burners inside and outside the house and sacred trees at the Baishuitai. Local people except the young generation had an abundant of traditional knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows the live ritual activities and the beliefs of the residents are keeping the plant diversity and the entire forest preserved as sacred mountains. Our study emphasizes traditional belief and an alternative view of conservation that is not led mainly by governmental policies, as local practices and ritual plants uses play as constant reminders to the Naxi on nature conservation. However, further research is recommended for in-depth understanding the role of traditional belief in biodiversity conservation.

Selection of Native Tree Species for Subtropical Forest Restoration in Southwest China.

The use of native species in forest restoration has been increasingly recognized as an effective means of restoring ecosystem functions and biodiversity to degraded areas across the world. However, successful selection of species adapted to local conditions requires specific knowledge which is often lacking, especially in developing countries. In order to scale up forest restoration, experimental data on the responses of native species to propagation and restoration treatments across a range of local conditions are required. In this study, the restoration potential of 34 native tree species was evaluated based on nursery research and field planting experiments at a highly degraded site in a subtropical area of southwest China. We examined species performance in terms of germination rates as well as survival rates and growth over 2 years after planting. Of the 34 species examined, 25 had a germination percentage greater than 50%. Survivorship ranged from 0 to 97% across species and was greater than 50% for 20 species. Mean monthly growth increments varied between species. Pioneer species performed well, and 14 mid- and late-successional species performed reasonably well to very well in this study. However, the remaining 16 mid- and late-successional species performed poorly. These results indicate that carefully selected mid- and late-successional species can be effectively incorporated into mixed species plantings. This data can be used to inform restoration planning, helping to identify suitable species and so enhance the biodiversity and resilience of restored forests.

Current re-vegetation patterns and restoration issues in degraded geological phosphorus-rich mountain areas: A synthetic analysis of Central Yunnan, SW China.

China has the largest area of inland geological phosphorus-rich (GPR) mountains in the world, where vegetation restoration is key to safeguarding the environment. We reviewed the published literature and collected new data in order to analyze re-vegetation patterns and the status of plant communities in central Yunnan. The aim of our analysis was to suggest future improvements to restoration strategies in GPR mountain regions. Our results showed that spontaneous recovery was the most widespread type of restoration. N-fixing species such as Coriaria nepalensis and Alnus nepalensis play a vital role in succession. In the past, monoculture tree plantation was the primary method used in afforestation activities in central Yunnan; in recent years however, several different methods of restoration have been introduced including the use of agroforestry systems. For practical restoration, we found that spontaneous recovery was capable of delivering the best results, but that during its early stages, restoration results were affected by several factors including erosion risk, the origin of propagates and environmental variation. In contrast, methods employing human-made communities performed better in their early stages, but were constrained by higher costs and vulnerability to degradation and erosion. The use of N-fixing species such as A. nepalensis and Acacia mearnsii in plantations were unsuccessful in restoring full ecosystem functions. The success of restoration activities in GPR mountain regions could be improved through the following measures: (1) developing a better understanding of the respective advantages and disadvantages of current natural and human-engineered restoration approaches; (2) elucidating the feedback mechanism between phosphorus-rich soil and species selected for restoration, especially N-fixing species; (3) introducing market incentives aimed at encouraging specific restoration activities such as agroforestry, and improving the industry value chain.