Autophagy in Dendritic Cells and B Cells Is Critical for the Inflammatory State of TLR7-Mediated Autoimmunity.

Individuals suffering from autoimmune disorders possess a hyperactive cellular phenotype where tolerance to self-antigens is lost. Autophagy has been implicated in both the induction and prevention of autoimmunity, and modulators of this cellular recycling process hold high potential for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. In this study, we determine the effects of a loss of autophagy in dendritic cells (DCs), as well as both B cells and DCs, in a TLR7-mediated model of autoimmunity, similar to systemic lupus erythematosus, where both cell types are critical for disease. Although a loss of DC autophagy slowed disease, the combined loss of autophagy in both cell types resulted in a lethal sepsis-like environment, which included tissue inflammation and hyperproduction of inflammasome-associated cytokines. Ablation of B cell signaling reversed this phenotype, indicating that activation of these cells is an essential step in disease induction. Thus, autophagy plays a dichotomous role in this model of disease.

Calpain-1 regulates platelet function in a humanized mouse model of sickle cell disease.

One of the major contributors to sickle cell disease (SCD) pathobiology is the hemolysis of sickle red blood cells (RBCs), which release free hemoglobin and platelet agonists including adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) into the plasma. While platelet activation/aggregation may promote tissue ischemia and pulmonary hypertension in SCD, modulation of sickle platelet dysfunction remains poorly understood. Calpain-1, a ubiquitous calcium-activated cysteine protease expressed in hematopoietic cells, mediates aggregation of platelets in healthy mice. We generated calpain-1 knockout Townes sickle (SSCKO) mice to investigate the role of calpain-1 in steady state and hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-induced sickle platelet activation and aggregation, clot retraction, and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Using multi-electrode aggregometry, which measures platelet adhesion and aggregation in whole blood, we determined that steady state SSCKO mice exhibit significantly impaired PAR4-TRAP-stimulated platelet aggregation as compared to Townes sickle (SS) and humanized control (AA) mice. Interestingly, the H/R injury induced platelet hyperactivity in SS and SSCKO, but not AA mice, and partially rescued the aggregation defect in SSCKO mice. The PAR4-TRAP-stimulated GPIIb-IIIa (αIIbß3) integrin activation was normal in SSCKO platelets suggesting that an alternate mechanism mediates the impaired platelet aggregation in steady state SSCKO mice. Taken together, we provide the first evidence that calpain-1 regulates platelet hyperactivity in sickle mice, and may offer a viable pharmacological target to reduce platelet hyperactivity in SCD.

Variation among pathologists in histologic grading of canine cutaneous mast cell tumors.

Ten veterinary pathologists at 1 veterinary institution independently assigned histologic grades to the same 60 canine cutaneous mast cell tumors (MCTs). There was significant variation among pathologists in grading the MCTs (P < 0.001). The probability of assigning a low grade was significantly higher for the pathologists in this study who use a published reference for histologic grading of canine cutaneous MCTs that allows subcutaneous MCTs or MCTs with mitotic figures to be included in the low-grade category (P < 0.0001 and P < 0.0001, respectively).

B cell autophagy mediates TLR7-dependent autoimmunity and inflammation.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a heterogeneous autoimmune disease, defined by loss of B cell self-tolerance that results in production of antinuclear antibodies (ANA) and chronic inflammation. While the initiating events in lupus development are not well defined, overexpression of the RNA-recognizing toll-like receptor (TLR)7 has been linked to SLE in humans and mice. We postulated that autophagy plays an essential role in TLR7 activation of B cells for the induction of SLE by delivering RNA ligands to the endosomes, where this innate immune receptor resides. To test this hypothesis, we compared SLE development in Tlr7 transgenic (Tg) mice with or without B cell-specific ablation of autophagy (Cd19-Cre Atg5(f/f)). We observed that in the absence of B cell autophagy the 2 hallmarks of SLE, ANA and inflammation, were eliminated, thus curing these mice of lupus. This was also evident in the significantly extended survival of the autophagy-deficient mice compared to Tlr7.1 Tg mice. Furthermore, glomerulonephritis was ameliorated, and the serum levels of inflammatory cytokines in the knockout (KO) mice were indistinguishable from those of control mice. These data provide direct evidence that B cells require TLR7-dependent priming through an autophagy-dependent mechanism before autoimmunity is induced, thereafter involving many cell types. Surprisingly, hyper-IgM production persisted in Tlr7.1 Tg mice in the absence of autophagy, likely involving a different activation pathway than the production of autoantibodies. Furthermore, these mice still presented with anemia, but responded with a striking increase in extramedullary hematopoiesis (EMH), possibly due to the absence of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Suspected metastatic coccygeal chordoma in a ferret (Mustela putorius furo).

A chordoma was removed from the tail base of a 6.5-year-old ferret (Mustela putorius furo). A nodule was observed in the area of tumor development when the ferret was purchased at 3 months of age. Although the nodule did not enlarge for 2 years, slow, steady growth of the tumor was observed for 4 years before surgical removal. Eight months after removal of the chordoma, the ferret developed 2 cutaneous masses. One was adjacent to the vulva, close to where the chordoma had been removed from, whereas the other was in the nasofacial region. After 4 months of slow growth, both masses were removed and both were histologically and immunohistochemically consistent with chordoma. Over the next 8 weeks, additional masses developed in the facial, maxillary gingival, and scapular regions. Enlargement of the gingival mass caused dysphagia, and the ferret was euthanized. Although a necropsy was not performed, these additional masses had a clinical appearance and texture that was similar to the 2 previously removed cutaneous chordomas. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a ferret coccygeal chordoma that developed close to the base of the tail. Ferret chordomas have been reported previously to metastasize to the subcutis overlying the tumor. However, this is the first report of a ferret chordoma that metastasized to a location distant to the primary site of neoplasm development. Cell proliferation indices did not predict this metastatic behavior. It is hypothesized that the long clinical period before removal may have predisposed this neoplasm to metastasis. Observations from this case suggest that chordomas in ferrets may have metastatic potential and so should be removed promptly.

Placental lesions caused by experimental infection of Sprague-Dawley rats with Mycoplasma pulmonis.

PROBLEM: Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats infected during pregnancy with Mycoplasma pulmonis display adverse pregnancy outcomes that are similar to those observed in women with chorioamnionitis and may provide a good model system for this disease. The placental lesions caused by this microorganism, however, have not been thoroughly characterized. METHOD OF STUDY: Rats were infected with 10(7) colony-forming units (CFU) M. pulmonis or vehicle control on gestation day (gd) 14 and were euthanized on gd 16-18. Tissues were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin, embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 4 microm, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H & E). The slides were coded and examined by a blinded pathologist using light microscopy. RESULTS: Infection with M. pulmonis was associated with necrosis of trophoblast giant cells at gd 18. Significantly more neutrophils were observed in the decidual region of the apex of the placenta in M. pulmonis infected animals. The vast majority of neutrophils, however, were observed in the decidua in the lateral regions of the placenta and in the adjacent endometrium. CONCLUSIONS: Infection of SD rats with M. pulmonis resulted in histological placentitis similar to that described in deciduitis of humans and represents a good model system for investigations into the pathophysiology of intrauterine infection. The influx of neutrophils seems to migrate from the endometrium towards the lateral regions of the placenta near Reichert's membrane and the divergence of the parietal yolk sac.