Autophagy Promotes Enrichment of Raft Components within Extracellular Vesicles Secreted by Human 2FTGH Cells.

Autophagy plays a key role in removing protein aggregates and damaged organelles. In addition to its conventional degradative functions, autophagy machinery contributes to the release of cytosolic proteins through an unconventional secretion pathway. In this research, we analyzed autophagy-induced extracellular vesicles (EVs) in HT1080-derived human fibrosarcoma 2FTGH cells using transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM). We preliminary observed that autophagy induces the formation of a subset of large heterogeneous intracellular vesicular structures. Moreover, AFM showed that autophagy triggering led to a more visible smooth cell surface with a reduced amount of plasma membrane protrusions. Next, we characterized EVs secreted by cells following autophagy induction, demonstrating that cells release both plasma membrane-derived microvesicles and exosomes. A self-forming iodixanol gradient was performed for cell subfractionation. Western blot analysis showed that endogenous LC3-II co-fractionated with CD63 and CD81. Then, we analyzed whether raft components are enriched within EV cargoes following autophagy triggering. We observed that the raft marker GD3 and ER marker ERLIN1 co-fractionated with LC3-II; dual staining by immunogold electron microscopy and coimmunoprecipitation revealed GD3-LC3-II association, indicating that autophagy promotes enrichment of raft components within EVs. Introducing a new brick in the crosstalk between autophagy and the endolysosomal system may have important implications for the knowledge of pathogenic mechanisms, suggesting alternative raft target therapies in diseases in which the generation of EV is active.

Citrullinated and carbamylated proteins in extracellular microvesicles from plasma of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the expression of citrullinated and carbamylated proteins in extracellular microvesicles (EMVs) from RA patients. METHODS: We enrolled 24 RA naïve for biological therapy and 20 healthy donors (HD), matched for age and sex. For each patient, laboratory and clinical data were recorded and clinical indexes were measured (Clinical Disease Activity Index, Simplified Disease Activity Index, DAS28). EMVs in RA patients and HD were purified from plasma and measured by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NanoSight). Further, EMVs were incubated with anti-citrullinated/carbamylated proteins antibodies and processed by flow cytometry and western blot to evaluate the expression of citrullinated/carbamylated antigens. RESULTS: NanoSight revealed a significant increase of EMVs in RA compared with HD. Moreover, cytofluorimetric analysis showed a significative higher expression of citrullinated antigens on EMVs' surface in RA than donors, while no substantial difference was found in the expression of carbamylated antigens. These data were confirmed by western blot which identified vimentin, glycolytic enzyme alpha-enolase 1 and collagen type II as the main citrullinated and carbamylated proteins carried by EMVs. Finally, a relevant correlation between the expression of citrullinated antigens and disease activity was found. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest an involvement of EMVs in the pathogenesis of RA by inducing autoimmunity.

The Role of Autophagy as a Trigger of Post-Translational Modifications of Proteins and Extracellular Vesicles in the Pathogenesis of Rheumatoid Arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease, characterized by persistent joint inflammation, leading to cartilage and bone destruction. Autoantibody production is directed to post-translational modified (PTM) proteins, i.e., citrullinated or carbamylated. Autophagy may be the common feature in several types of stress (smoking, joint injury, and infections) and may be involved in post-translational modifications (PTMs) in proteins and the generation of citrullinated and carbamylated peptides recognized by the immune system in RA patients, with a consequent breakage of tolerance. Interestingly, autophagy actively provides information to neighboring cells via a process called secretory autophagy. Secretory autophagy combines the autophagy machinery with the secretion of cellular content via extracellular vesicles (EVs). A role for exosomes in RA pathogenesis has been recently demonstrated. Exosomes are involved in intercellular communications, and upregulated proteins and RNAs may contribute to the development of inflammatory arthritis and the progression of RA. In RA, most of the exosomes are produced by leukocytes and synoviocytes, which are loaded with PTM proteins, mainly citrullinated proteins, inflammatory molecules, and enzymes that are implicated in RA pathogenesis. Microvesicles derived from cell plasma membrane may also be loaded with PTM proteins, playing a role in the immunopathogenesis of RA. An analysis of changes in EV profiles, including PTM proteins, could be a useful tool for the prevention of inflammation in RA patients and help in the discovery of personalized medicine.

Unique functions for Notch4 in murine embryonic lymphangiogenesis.

In mice, embryonic dermal lymphatic development is well understood and used to study gene functions in lymphangiogenesis. Notch signaling is an evolutionarily conserved pathway that modulates cell fate decisions, which has been shown to both inhibit and promote dermal lymphangiogenesis. Here, we demonstrate distinct roles for Notch4 signaling versus canonical Notch signaling in embryonic dermal lymphangiogenesis. Actively growing embryonic dermal lymphatics expressed NOTCH1, NOTCH4, and DLL4 which correlated with Notch activity. In lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs), DLL4 activation of Notch induced a subset of Notch effectors and lymphatic genes, which were distinctly regulated by Notch1 and Notch4 activation. Treatment of LECs with VEGF-A or VEGF-C upregulated Dll4 transcripts and differentially and temporally regulated the expression of Notch1 and Hes/Hey genes. Mice nullizygous for Notch4 had an increase in the closure of the lymphangiogenic fronts which correlated with reduced vessel caliber in the maturing lymphatic plexus at E14.5 and reduced branching at E16.5. Activation of Notch4 suppressed LEC migration in a wounding assay significantly more than Notch1, suggesting a dominant role for Notch4 in regulating LEC migration. Unlike Notch4 nulls, inhibition of canonical Notch signaling by expressing a dominant negative form of MAML1 (DNMAML) in Prox1+ LECs led to increased lymphatic density consistent with an increase in LEC proliferation, described for the loss of LEC Notch1. Moreover, loss of Notch4 did not affect LEC canonical Notch signaling. Thus, we propose that Notch4 signaling and canonical Notch signaling have distinct functions in the coordination of embryonic dermal lymphangiogenesis.

Carbamylation of ß2-glycoprotein I generates new autoantigens for antiphospholipid syndrome: a new tool for diagnosis of 'seronegative' patients.

OBJECTIVES: Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is a prothrombotic condition defined by recurrent thrombosis, pregnancy complications and circulating antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL), including anti-ß2-glycoprotein I (ß2-GPI). In clinical practice it is possible to find patients with APS persistently negative for the aPL tests according to Sydney criteria ('seronegative APS', SN-APS). Recently, several autoimmune responses have been described as a consequence of post-translational modifications of their target autoantigens. This study was undertaken to test carbamylated-ß2-GPI (Carb-ß2-GPI) as a new autoantigen of APS. METHODS: ß2-GPI was carbamylated by potassium cyanate and used to investigate its effect on monocyte-derived dendritic cell (moDC) phenotype and function. Sera from 114 SN-APS patients, 60 APS, 20 patients with RA, 20 non-APS thrombosis and 50 healthy donors were analysed for anti-Carb-ß2-GPI by ELISA. RESULTS: Carb-ß2-GPI is able to activate moDCs, inducing upregulation of CD80, CD86 and CD40, activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-κB, and IL-12p70 release. Serological results showed that both 37/114 SN-APS (32.46%) and 23/60 APS (38.33%) patients resulted positive for anti-Carb-ß2-GPI. Interestingly, SN-APS patients who tested positive for anti-Carb-ß2-GPI showed a higher prevalence of thrombocytopenia (P = 0.04, likelihood positive ratio of 3.9). CONCLUSION: Data obtained from both functional tests on moDCs and immunological approaches prompted identification of Carb-ß2-GPI as a 'new' antigenic target in APS. In particular, anti-Carb-ß2-GPI revealed a potential usefulness in identification of a significant proportion of SN-APS patients. Moreover, since patients who tested positive for anti-Carb-ß2-GPI reported a high risk of thrombocytopenia, this test may be considered a suitable approach in the clinical evaluation of SN-APS.

'Non-criteria antiphospholipid antibodies': bridging the gap between seropositive and seronegative antiphospholipid syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to analyse the prevalence of non-criteria anti-phospholipid (aPL) antibodies and their role in the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis in a cohort of patients with clinical features consistent with a diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), but persistently negative for criteria aPL - anti-cardiolipin antibodies (aCL), anti-ß2-glycoprotein I antibodies (aß2-GPI) and lupus anticoagulant (LA) - named seronegative APS (SN-APS). METHODS: Sera from SN-APS patients were tested for aCL by TLC-immunostaining, anti-vimentin/cardiolipin (aVim/CL) and anti-phosphatidylserine/prothrombin (anti-PS/PT) by ELISA. Control groups of our study were APS patients and healthy controls. RESULTS: We enrolled 114 consecutive SN-APS patients, 69 (60.5%) resulted positive for at least one non-criteria test in two occasions 12 weeks apart. Among the persistently positive patients to these tests, 97% resulted positive for aCL by TLC-immunostaining, 52.3% for aVim/CL and 17.4% for aPS/PT. SN-APS patients with double positivity (aCL by TLC-immunostaining and aVim/CL) showed a likelihood positive ratio of 8 to present mixed thrombotic and obstetrical features. Among SN-APS patients tested positive, after the therapeutic changes, three cases of recurrent thrombosis were observed [median follow-up 41 months (IQR 39.5)]. Twenty pregnancies were recorded in 17 SN-APS patients after the detection of unconventional aPL and 12 of them (60%) experienced a good outcome under conventional treatment for APS. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest monocentric study demonstrating that aCL tested by TLC-immunostaining and aVim/CL can detect aPL positivity in SN-APS. It may encourage clinicians to monitor and provide adequate targeted therapy, which improve SN-APS prognosis.

Non-organ-specific autoimmunity in adult 47,XXY Klinefelter patients and higher-grade X-chromosome aneuploidies.

Current literature regarding systemic autoimmune diseases in X-chromosome aneuploidies is scarce and limited to case reports. Our aim was to evaluate the frequency of anti-nuclear (ANAs), extractable nuclear (ENA), anti-double-stranded DNA (dsDNAs), anti-smooth muscle (ASMAs) and anti-mitochondrial (AMAs) antibodies in a large cohort of adults with Klinefelter's syndrome (KS, 47,XXY) and rare higher-grade sex chromosome aneuploidies (HGAs) for the first time. Sera from 138 X-chromosome aneuploid patients [124 adult patients with 47,XXY KS and 14 patients with HGA (six children, eight adults)] and 50 age-matched 46,XY controls were recruited from the Sapienza University of Rome (2007-17) and tested for ANAs, ENAs, anti-dsDNAs, ASMAs and AMAs. Non-organ-specific immunoreactivity was found to be significantly higher in patients with 47,XXY KS (14%) than in the controls (2%, p = 0.002). Among all the antibodies investigated, only ANAs were observed significantly more frequently in patients with 47,XXY KS (12.1%) than in the controls (2%, p = 0.004). No anti-dsDNA immunoreactivity was found. Stratifying by testosterone replacement therapy (TRT), non-organ-specific autoantibody frequencies were higher in TRT-naive (p = 0.01) and TRT-treated groups than in controls. No patients with HGA were found positive for the various autoantibodies. Non-organ-specific autoantibodies were significantly present in 47,XXY adult patients. Conversely, HGAs did not appear to be target of non-organ-specific immunoreactivity, suggesting that KS and HGAs should be considered as two distinct conditions. The classification and diagnosis of systemic autoimmune diseases is frequently difficult. To support a correct clinical evaluation of KS disease and to prevent eventual secondary irreversible immune-mediated damages, we highlight the importance of screening for non-organ-specific autoimmunity in Klinefelter's syndrome.

Anti-vimentin/cardiolipin IgA in the anti-phospholipid syndrome: A new tool for 'seronegative' diagnosis.

Anti-phospholipid syndrome (APS) is a systemic autoimmune disorder defined by the simultaneous presence of vascular clinical events, pregnancy morbidity and anti-phospholipid antibodies (aPL). In clinical practice, it is possible to find patients with APS who are persistently negative for the routine aPL tests (seronegative APS; SN-APS). Recently, the identification of aPL immunoglobulin (Ig)A and/or anti-ß2-glycoprotein-I (ß2-GPI) IgA was shown to represent a further test in SN-APS patients. In this study we analyzed the presence of anti-vimentin/cardiolipin (aVim/CL) IgA in a large cohort of patients with SN-APS, evaluating their possible association with clinical manifestations of the syndrome. This study includes 60 consecutive SN-APS patients, 30 patients with APS and 40 healthy donors. aVim/CL IgA were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results show that 12 of 30 APS patients (40%) and 16 of 60 SN-APS patients (26.7%) resulted positive for aVim/CL IgA. Interestingly, SN-APS patients who tested positive for aVim/CL IgA showed a higher prevalence of arterial thrombosis (p = 0.017, likelihood positive ratio = 5.7). This study demonstrates for the first time, to our knowledge, the presence of aVim/CL IgA in sera of patients with APS. In particular, they revealed a potential usefulness in identification of a significant proportion of SN-APS patients. Moreover, as patients tested positive for aVim/CL IgA reported a high likelihood ratio to have the clinical features of APS, this test may be considered a suitable approach in the clinical evaluation of SN-APS.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of a CB2 Selective Cannabinoid Receptor Agonist: Signaling and Cytokines Release in Blood Mononuclear Cells.

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) exerts immunosuppressive effects, which are mostly mediated by cannabinoid receptor 2 (CBR2), whose expression on leukocytes is higher than CBR1, mainly localized in the brain. Targeted CBR2 activation could limit inflammation, avoiding CBR1-related psychoactive effects. Herein, we evaluated in vitro the biological activity of a novel, selective and high-affinity CBR2 agonist, called JT11, studying its potential CBR2-mediated anti-inflammatory effect. Trypan Blue and MTT assays were used to test the cytotoxic and anti-proliferative effect of JT11 in Jurkat cells. Its pro-apoptotic activity was investigated analyzing both cell cycle and poly PARP cleavage. Finally, we evaluated its impact on LPS-induced ERK1/2 and NF-kB-p65 activation, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6 and IL-8 release in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy donors. Selective CB2R antagonist SR144528 and CBR2 knockdown were used to further verify the selectivity of JT11. We confirmed selective CBR2 activation by JT11. JT11 regulated cell viability and proliferation through a CBR2-dependent mechanism in Jurkat cells, exhibiting a mild pro-apoptotic activity. Finally, it reduced LPS-induced ERK1/2 and NF-kB-p65 phosphorylation and pro-inflammatory cytokines release in human PBMCs, proving to possess in vitro anti-inflammatory properties. JT11 as CBR2 ligands could enhance ECS immunoregulatory activity and our results support the view that therapeutic strategies targeting CBR2 signaling could be promising for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Molecular Mechanisms of "Antiphospholipid Antibodies" and Their Paradoxical Role in the Pathogenesis of "Seronegative APS".

Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by arterial and/or venous thrombosis and/or pregnancy morbidity, associated with circulating antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). In some cases, patients with a clinical profile indicative of APS (thrombosis, recurrent miscarriages or fetal loss), who are persistently negative for conventional laboratory diagnostic criteria, are classified as "seronegative" APS patients (SN-APS). Several findings suggest that aPL, which target phospholipids and/or phospholipid binding proteins, mainly ß-glycoprotein I (ß-GPI), may contribute to thrombotic diathesis by interfering with hemostasis. Despite the strong association between aPL and thrombosis, the exact pathogenic mechanisms underlying thrombotic events and pregnancy morbidity in APS have not yet been fully elucidated and multiple mechanisms may be involved. Furthermore, in many SN-APS patients, it is possible to demonstrate the presence of unconventional aPL ("non-criteria" aPL) or to detect aPL with alternative laboratory methods. These findings allowed the scientists to study the pathogenic mechanism of SN-APS. This review is focused on the evidence showing that these antibodies may play a functional role in the signal transduction pathway(s) leading to thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity in SN-APS. A better comprehension of the molecular mechanisms triggered by aPL may drive development of potential therapeutic strategies in APS patients.

Autophagy induces protein carbamylation in fibroblast-like synoviocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

Objectives: Autophagy is a homeostatic and physiological process that promotes the turnover of proteins and organelles damaged in conditions of cellular stress. We previously demonstrated that autophagy represents a key processing event creating a substrate for autoreactivity, which is involved in post-translational changes and generation of citrullinated peptides, recognized by the immune system in RA. In this study, we analysed whether autophagy is involved in other post-translational changes that can generate autoantigens, focusing on carbamylation processes. Carbamylation is a nonenzymatic post-translational modification, in which homocitrulline is generated by the reaction of cyanate with the primary amine of lysine residues; carbamylated peptides may accumulate during inflammation conditions. Methods: The role of autophagy in the generation of carbamylated proteins was evaluated in vitro in fibroblasts as well as in synoviocytes from RA patients, treated with 5 µM tunicamycin or 200 nM rapamycin; the correlation between autophagy and carbamylated proteins was analysed in mononuclear cells from 30 naïve early-active RA patients. Results: Our results demonstrated that cells treated with tunicamycin or rapamycin showed a significant increase of carbamylated proteins. Immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation experiments identified vimentin as the main carbamylated protein. Furthermore, a correlation was found between autophagy and carbamylation levels in mononuclear cells of naïve RA patients. Conclusion: These data indicate that autophagy is able to induce in vitro carbamylation processes, and in vivo appears to be related to an increase in carbamylation during RA. These observations introduce a new pathogenetic mechanism of disease, which could contribute to more accurate monitoring of patients.

Advances in the Pathophysiology of Thrombosis in Antiphospholipid Syndrome: Molecular Mechanisms and Signaling through Lipid Rafts.

The pathological features of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) are related to the activity of circulating antiphospholipid antibodies (aPLs) associated with vascular thrombosis and obstetric complications. Indeed, aPLs are not only disease markers, but also play a determining pathogenetic role in APS and exert their effects through the activation of cells and coagulation factors and inflammatory mediators for the materialization of the thromboinflammatory pathogenetic mechanism. Cellular activation in APS necessarily involves the interaction of aPLs with target receptors on the cell membrane, capable of triggering the signal transduction pathway(s). This interaction occurs at specific microdomains of the cell plasma membrane called lipid rafts. In this review, we focus on the key role of lipid rafts as signaling platforms in the pathogenesis of APS, and propose this pathogenetic step as a strategic target of new therapies in order to improve classical anti-thrombotic approaches with "new" immunomodulatory drugs.

Oxidative Stress as a Regulatory Checkpoint in the Production of Antiphospholipid Autoantibodies: The Protective Role of NRF2 Pathway.

Oxidative stress is a well-known hallmark of Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome (APS), a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by arterial and venous thrombosis and/or pregnancy morbidity. Oxidative stress may affect various signaling pathways and biological processes, promoting dysfunctional immune responses and inflammation, inducing apoptosis, deregulating autophagy and impairing mitochondrial function. The chronic oxidative stress and the dysregulation of the immune system leads to the loss of tolerance, which drives autoantibody production and inflammation with the development of endothelial dysfunction. In particular, anti-phospholipid antibodies (aPL), which target phospholipids and/or phospholipid binding proteins, mainly ß-glycoprotein I (ß-GPI), play a functional role in the cell signal transduction pathway(s), thus contributing to oxidative stress and thrombotic events. An oxidation-antioxidant imbalance may be detected in the blood of patients with APS as a reflection of disease progression. This review focuses on functional evidence highlighting the role of oxidative stress in the initiation and progression of APS. The protective role of food supplements and Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 (NRF2) activators in APS patients will be summarized to point out the potential of these therapeutic approaches to reduce APS-related clinical complications.

Antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with stroke during COVID-19: A role in the signaling pathway leading to platelet activation.

Background: Several viral and bacterial infections, including COVID-19, may lead to both thrombotic and hemorrhagic complications. Previously, it has been demonstrated an "in vitro" pathogenic effect of "antiphospholipid" antibodies (aPLs), which are able to activate a proinflammatory and procoagulant phenotype in monocytes, endothelial cells and platelets. This study analyzed the occurrence of aPL IgG in patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) during COVID-19, evaluating the effect of Ig fractions from these patients on signaling and functional activation of platelets. Materials and methods: Sera from 10 patients with AIS during COVID-19, 10 non-COVID-19 stroke patients, 20 COVID-19 and 30 healthy donors (HD) were analyzed for anti-cardiolipin, anti-ß2-GPI, anti-phosphatidylserine/prothrombin and anti-vimentin/CL antibodies by ELISA. Platelets from healthy donors were incubated with Ig fractions from these patients or with polyclonal anti-ß2-GPI IgG and analyzed for phospho-ERK and phospho-p38 by western blot. Platelet secretion by ATP release dosage was also evaluated. Results: We demonstrated the presence of aPLs IgG in sera of patients with AIS during COVID-19. Treatment with the Ig fractions from these patients or with polyclonal anti-ß2-GPI IgG induced a significant increase of phospho-ERK and phospho-p38 expression. In the same vein, platelet activation was supported by the increase of adenyl nucleotides release induced by Ig fractions. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the presence of aPLs in a subgroup of COVID-19 patients who presented AIS, suggesting a role in the mechanisms contributing to hypercoagulable state in these patients. Detecting these antibodies as a serological marker to check and monitor COVID-19 may contribute to improve the risk stratification of thromboembolic manifestations in these patients.

Role of Lipid Rafts on LRP8 Signaling Triggered by Anti-ß2-GPI Antibodies in Endothelial Cells.

Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome is an autoimmune disease characterized by thrombosis and/or pregnancy morbidity in association with circulating antiphospholipid antibodies, mainly anti-ß2 glycoprotein 1 antibodies (anti-ß2-GPI antibodies). Previous studies demonstrated that the signaling pathway may involve lipid rafts, plasma membrane microdomains enriched in glycosphingolipid and cholesterol. In this study, we analyzed the signaling pathway of LRP8/ApoER2, a putative receptor of anti-ß2-GPI antibodies, through lipid rafts in human endothelial cells. LRP8, Dab2 and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (e-NOS) phosphorylation were evaluated using Western blot, Nitric Oxide (NO) production with cytofluorimetric analysis, LRP8 enrichment in lipid rafts via sucrose gradient fractionation, and scanning confocal microscopy analysis of its association with ganglioside GM1 was also conducted. The analyses demonstrated that affinity-purified anti-ß2-GPI antibodies induced LRP8 and Dab-2 phosphorylation, together with a significant decrease in e-NOS phosphorylation, with consequent decrease in NO intracellular production. These effects were almost completely prevented by Methyl-ß-cyclodextrin (MßCD), indicating the involvement of lipid rafts. It was supported with the observation of LRP8 enrichment in lipid raft fractions and its association with ganglioside GM1, detected with scanning confocal microscopy. These findings demonstrate that LRP8 signaling triggered by anti-ß2-GPI antibodies in endothelial cells occurs through lipid rafts. It represents a new task for valuable therapeutic approaches, such as raft-targeted therapy, including cyclodextrins and statins.

Role of a Novel Heparanase Inhibitor on the Balance between Apoptosis and Autophagy in U87 Human Glioblastoma Cells.

BACKGROUND: Heparanase (HPSE) is an endo-ß-glucuronidase that cleaves heparan sulfate side chains, leading to the disassembly of the extracellular matrix, facilitating cell invasion and metastasis dissemination. In this research, we investigated the role of a new HPSE inhibitor, RDS 3337, in the regulation of the autophagic process and the balance between apoptosis and autophagy in U87 glioblastoma cells. METHODS: After treatment with RDS 3337, cell lysates were analyzed for autophagy and apoptosis-related proteins by Western blot. RESULTS: We observed, firstly, that LC3II expression increased in U87 cells incubated with RDS 3337, together with a significant increase of p62/SQSTM1 levels, indicating that RDS 3337 could act through the inhibition of autophagic-lysosomal flux of LC3-II, thereby leading to accumulation of lipidated LC3-II form. Conversely, the suppression of autophagic flux could activate apoptosis mechanisms, as revealed by the activation of caspase 3, the increased level of cleaved Parp1, and DNA fragmentation. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the notion that HPSE promotes autophagy, providing evidence that RDS 3337 blocks autophagic flux. It indicates a role for HPSE inhibitors in the balance between apoptosis and autophagy in U87 human glioblastoma cells, suggesting a potential role for this new class of compounds in the control of tumor growth progression.

Anti-ß2-GPI Antibodies Induce Endothelial Cell Expression of Tissue Factor by LRP6 Signal Transduction Pathway Involving Lipid Rafts.

In this study we analyzed whether anti-ß2-GPI antibodies from patients with APS induce the endothelial cell expression of Tissue Factor (TF) by a LRP6 signal transduction pathway involving lipid rafts. HUVEC were stimulated with affinity purified anti-ß2-GPI antibodies. Both LRP6 and ß-catenin phosphorylation, as well as TF expression, were evaluated by western blot. Results demonstrated that triggering with affinity purified anti-ß2-GPI antibodies induced LRP6 phosphorylation with consequent ß-catenin activation, leading to TF expression on the cell surface. Interestingly, the lipid rafts affecting agent methyl-ß-cyclodextrin as well as the LRP6 inhibitor Dickkopf 1 (DKK1) partially reduced the anti-ß2-GPI antibodies effect, indicating that the anti-ß2-GPI effects on TF expression may depend on a signalling transduction pathway involving both lipid rafts and LRP6. An interaction between ß2-GPI, LRP6 and PAR-2 within these microdomains was demonstrated by gradient fractionation and coimmunoprecipitation experiments. Thus, anti-ß2-GPI antibodies react with their target antigen likely associated to LRP6 and PAR-2 within plasma membrane lipid rafts of the endothelial cell. Anti-ß2-GPI binding triggers ß-catenin phosphorylation, leading to a procoagulant phenotype characterized by TF expression. These findings deal with a novel signal transduction pathway which provides new insight in the APS pathogenesis, improving the knowledge of valuable therapeutic target(s).

Relationship Between Gender Differences and Clinical Outcome in Patients With the Antiphospholipid Syndrome.

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), characterized by artherial and/or venous thrombosis, pregnancy morbidity and "antiphospholipid" antibodies (aPLs), is more common in women than in men, with a female to male ratio of about 3.5:1. Only few studies have investigated the clinical differences between male and female patients with APS. Therefore, this study was aimed to analyze the differences of clinical manifestations and laboratory tests, at diagnosis, between female and male APS patients and the clinical outcome. We enrolled 191 consecutive APS patients (125 with primary APS, PAPS, and 66 with secondary APS, SAPS) with a female predominant ratio of approximately 3:1 (142 vs 49). The prevalence of PAPS was higher in males than females (p<0.001). The analysis of aPL profile revealed that high IgM anti-cardiolipin (aCL) and high-medium IgG aCL titers were more frequent in males. In thrombotic APS peripheral arterial thrombosis was more common in male than female patients (p=0.049), as well as myocardial infarction (p=0.031). Multivariate analysis to correct for cardiovascular risk factors, high titer of aPLs and triple positivity for aPLs, revealed that the odds ratio for myocardial infarction in male was 3.77. Thus, APS may be considered as a disease in which serological (IgM titer) and clinical profiles are influenced by gender.