Genome variation in tick infestation and cryptic divergence in Tunisian indigenous sheep.

BACKGROUND: Ticks are obligate haematophagous ectoparasites considered second to mosquitos as vectors and reservoirs of multiple pathogens of global concern. Individual variation in tick infestation has been reported in indigenous sheep, but its genetic control remains unknown. RESULTS: Here, we report 397 genome-wide signatures of selection overlapping 991 genes from the analysis, using ROH, LR-GWAS, XP-EHH, and FST, of 600 K SNP genotype data from 165 Tunisian sheep showing high and low levels of tick infestations and piroplasm infections. We consider 45 signatures that are detected by consensus results of at least two methods as high-confidence selection regions. These spanned 104 genes which included immune system function genes, solute carriers and chemokine receptor. One region spanned STX5, that has been associated with tick resistance in cattle, implicating it as a prime candidate in sheep. We also observed RAB6B and TF in a high confidence candidate region that has been associated with growth traits suggesting natural selection is enhancing growth and developmental stability under tick challenge. The analysis also revealed fine-scale genome structure indicative of cryptic divergence in Tunisian sheep. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide a genomic reference that can enhance the understanding of the genetic architecture of tick resistance and cryptic divergence in indigenous African sheep.

Genomic analysis of 10 years of artificial selection in community-based breeding programs in two Ethiopian indigenous sheep breeds.

In recent times, community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) have been advocated as the best strategy for genetic improvement of local breeds in smallholder farms in developing countries. Since 2009, CBBPs have been implemented for Ethiopian Bonga and Menz sheep to improve growth rates resulting in significant genetic gains in 6-month weights. With the hypothesis that selection could be impacting their genomes, we systematically screened for possible genome changes in the two breeds by analyzing 600K BeadChip genotype data of 151 individuals (with the highest breeding values for 6-month weights) from CBBP flocks against 98 individuals from non-CBBP flocks. We observed no differences in genetic diversity and demographic dynamics between CBBP and non-CBBP flocks. Selection signature analysis employing ROH, logistic regression genome-wide association study , FST , XP-EHH and iHS revealed 5 (Bonga) and 11 (Menz) overlapping regions under selection, that co-localized with QTLs for production (body size/weight, growth, milk yield), meat/milk quality, and health/parasite resistance, suggesting that the decade-long selection has likely started to impact their genomes. However, genome-wide genetic differentiation between the CBBP and non-CBBP flocks is not yet clearly evident.

Three easy fixes for sire use can enhance genetic progress in community-based breeding programmes.

We analysed options to optimize the use of sires in sheep and goat community-based breeding programmes (CBBP) for three scenarios occurring under field conditions: premature sale of selection candidates, fixed service periods of selected sires and incomplete sire pedigrees. The first scenario was studied by looking at the outcome of combinations of selection pressures in successive selection stages. A compromise of early sale of sire candidates and genetic progress can be obtained by selecting in two stages, such that selection pressure in the first stage is chosen in terms of achieving an acceptable selection potential after the second stage. Simulations showed the dependency of this compromise on selection accuracies and correlation between selection criteria. For a typical sheep CBBP, only 20% of the top three months weighting male lambs need to be retained to achieve 80% of the potential selection differential on six months weight. For the second scenario, two alternatives to fixed service periods were analysed. When across-age BLUP EBVs are not available, individual sires can be programmed to stay in service according to their initial ranking. In typical sheep, CBBPs genetic progress can be increased by about 9% over response to selection with optimum fixed sire service periods. When BLUP EBVs are available, a simulated retrospective analyses of across-age selection of sires in two current sheep CBBPs increased more than twofold the average breeding values actually observed. Thirdly, we studied the benefit of considering possible sires and their mating probabilities when estimating BLUP breeding values instead of setting such sires as unknown. In a current goat CBBP with up to three possible sires included in the pedigree, the accuracy of breeding values nears the accuracy when sires are known and are higher than accuracies when sires are unknown or when possible sires are ignored.

Coat color alterations over the years and their association with growth performances in the Menz sheep central nucleus and community-based breeding programs.

In the traditional Menz sheep breeding, communities select against black coat color and therefore its frequency is declining over time. We hypothesize that this exercise is causing the loss of an important gene pool. Data collected from on-station Menz sheep nucleus (n = 1992) and community-based breeding program (CBBP) (n = 5578) were analyzed to (1) assess color proportion dynamics over years and (2) associate phenotypic performances and estimated breeding values (EBVs) for growth traits with coat color of the animals. The on-station nucleus considered growth trait as selection criteria, while CBBP focused on a combination of growth and morphological characters. The results showed that the proportion of black coat color increased across years in the on-station nucleus flock (2.1% per year). However, in the CBBP, flocks' proportion of black coat color declined over time (1.03-1.05% per year). Birth and growth traits of black-colored sheep were consistently superior (P < 0.05) to white-colored sheep. Mean yearling weight and EBV of black rams used in the on-station flock was 24.3 kg and 3.7 kg, respectively, while the values for white-colored sheep were 19.7 kg and 1.6 kg, respectively. This variation in growth performances of Menz sheep among different colors may be due to the linkage between color and growth performance genes. Thus, selection against black coat color in the CBBPs seems to have an adverse effect on the genetic progress of growth traits in the Menz sheep. Understanding the core reasons behind the prevailing selection against black coat color and devising measures to address them should be considered. Developing a black line targeting specific markets might also be worthy to maximize production as well as maintain qualities associated with black color.

Estimates of genetic parameters and trends for reproduction traits in Bonga sheep, Ethiopia.

Investigation was carried out to assess the effects of environmental factors and to estimate genetic parameters and trends for reproductive traits in Bonga sheep, Ethiopia. Animals used in this study were managed by two communities involved in a community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) from 2009 to 2018. The database consisted of 15,595 individual phenotypic information from about 1500 ewes with variable number of records for each trait. The traits analyzed were age at first lambing (AFL), lambing interval (LI), and litter size (LS). Fixed effect analysis was done using the general linear model procedures of SAS. The Average Information Restricted Maximum Likelihood method of WOMBAT, fitting univariate animalmodel, was used to estimate heritabilities, repeatabilities and breeding values. Results showed that Bonga sheep had overall mean AFL, LI, and LS of 453 ± 109 days, 254 ± 51 days, and 1.43 ± 0.008, respectively. All traits were influenced (p < 0.01) by lambing year, lambing season, breeder communities, and parity of ewes. Estimates of heritability for AFL, LI, and LS were 0.015 ± 0.143, 0.009 ± 0.070, and 0.085 ± 0.110, respectively. The low heritabilities for the traits are expected and indicate low possibility of achieving rapid genetic progress through phenotypic selection. The repeatability estimates for LI and LS were low (0.109 and 0.196, respectively) indicating that non-genetic factors had significant influence to the variation in these traits among parities; therefore, selection decision on ewes should consider repeated records. The genetic trend for AFL, LI, and LS over the years was significant (p < 0.01). Positive values for LS and negative for AFL and LI were recorded, implying that the well-structured CBBPs have resulted in measurable genetic gains for the reproductive traits.

Genome-wide scans identify known and novel regions associated with prolificacy and reproduction traits in a sub-Saharan African indigenous sheep (Ovis aries).

Maximizing the number of offspring born per female is a key functionality trait in commercial- and/or subsistence-oriented livestock enterprises. Although the number of offspring born is closely associated with female fertility and reproductive success, the genetic control of these traits remains poorly understood in sub-Saharan Africa livestock. Using selection signature analysis performed on Ovine HD BeadChip data from the prolific Bonga sheep in Ethiopia, 41 candidate regions under selection were identified. The analysis revealed one strong selection signature on a candidate region on chromosome X spanning BMP15, suggesting this to be the primary candidate prolificacy gene in the breed. The analysis also identified several candidate regions spanning genes not reported before in prolific sheep but underlying fertility and reproduction in other species. The genes associated with female reproduction traits included SPOCK1 (age at first oestrus), GPR173 (mediator of ovarian cyclicity), HB-EGF (signalling early pregnancy success) and SMARCAL1 and HMGN3a (regulate gene expression during embryogenesis). The genes involved in male reproduction were FOXJ1 (sperm function and successful fertilization) and NME5 (spermatogenesis). We also observed genes such as PKD2L2, MAGED1 and KDM3B, which have been associated with diverse fertility traits in both sexes of other species. The results confirm the complexity of the genetic mechanisms underlying reproduction while suggesting that prolificacy in the Bonga sheep, and possibly African indigenous sheep is partly under the control of BMP15 while other genes that enhance male and female fertility are essential for reproductive fitness.

Community-based breeding programmes are a viable solution for Ethiopian small ruminant genetic improvement but require public and private investments.

Ethiopia has a large and diverse population of small ruminants, which contribute substantially to the livelihood and income of the rural poor and the country at large. However, the sector faces a number of challenges. Productivity per animal and flock offtake are both very low. Reasons attributed for the apparent low productivity are as follows: absence of appropriate breeding programmes, lack of technical capacity, inadequate and poor-quality feeds, diseases leading to high lamb mortality, and underdeveloped markets in terms of infrastructure and information. Historically, sheep and goats have received little policy or investment attention. Genetic improvement of small ruminants could contribute to bridging the productivity gap. In the past, the government of Ethiopia has placed much emphasis on importing exotic genetics and cross-breeding with local stock as a strategy for genetic improvement. However, this has not led to a significant productivity improvement and the programmes have generally been unsustainable. Currently, there is a change in approach and a recognition of the need to focus genetic improvement efforts on the local genetic resources that are well adapted to the diverse agro-ecologies and production environments in the country. Community-based breeding programmes (CBBPs), which focus on indigenous stock and consider farmers' needs, views, decisions and active participation, from inception through to implementation, have been identified as programmes of choice. The Ethiopian government and the private sector need to invest in strategic areas around CBBPs to make the programme work for the poor and be sustainable in low-input systems.

Effects of feeding different varieties of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) straws with concentrate supplement on feed intake, digestibility, body weight gain and carcass characteristics of Arsi-Bale sheep.

OBJECTIVE: A study was conducted to evaluate the varietal differences among faba bean straws and also to assess the potentials of faba bean straws supplemented with concentrate fed at the rate 70% straws and 30% concentrate mixture on feed intake, digestibility, body weight gain and carcass characteristics of the animals. METHODS: Forty yearling Arsi-Bale sheep with initial body weight of 19.85±0.29 kg (mean± standard deviation) were grouped in a randomized complete block design into eight blocks of five animals each based on their initial body weight. Straws included in the study were from Mosisa (T1M), Walki (T2W), Degaga (T3D), Shallo (T4S), and local (T5L) varieties of faba bean and concentrate (2:1 ratio of wheat bran to "noug" seed cake). The experiment consisted of seven days of digestibility and 90 days of feeding trials followed by evaluation of carcass parameters at the end. RESULTS: Local variety had lower (p<0.05) in grain and straw yield compared to improved varieties but higher in crude protein, metabolizable energy contents and in vitro organic matter digestibility. The apparent digestibility of dry matter and crude protein of sheep fed Walki and Mosisa straws were higher than (p<0.05) straws from Shallo varieties. Sheep fed Walki straw had greater (p<0.05) dry matter intake, average daily gain and feed conversion efficiency than sheep fed local and Shallo straws. Slaughter body weight and empty body weight were higher (p<0.05) for sheep fed Mosisa and Walki straws as compared to sheep fed Shallo straws. Apart from this, the other carcass components were not affected (p>0.05) by variety of the faba bean straws. CONCLUSION: There is significant varietal differences between faba bean straws both in quality and quantity. Similarly, significant variation was observed in feed intake, digestibility, body weight gain and feed conversion efficiency among sheep fed different straws of faba bean varieties with concentrate supplement. Based on these results, Walki and Mosisa varieties could be recommended as pulse crop rotation with cereals in the study area.

Integrating straw yield and quality into multi-dimensional improvement of lentil (Lens culinaris).

BACKGROUND: Lentil straw is an important source of fodder for livestock in Africa, South Asia and the Middle East. However, improvement programmes of lentil do not pay attention to straw traits, neither are straw traits considered in release criteria of new varieties. This study aimed to determine whether straw traits can be integrated into multi-trait improvement of lentil. RESULTS: Wide genotypic variation (P < 0.001) was found in grain yield, straw yield and nutritive value of straw. Urea treatment significantly (P < 0.01) improved the nutritive value of straw; however, the genotypic range was comparatively higher by 13.3 units, 56 units, 0.82 units, 106 units, 18.3 units and 1.62 units in crude protein, in vitro organic matter digestibility, metabolisable energy, potential dry matter intake, potential crude protein intake and potential metabolisable energy intake respectively. Acid detergent fibre correlated very strongly (pooled r = 0.87) with other nutritive value parameters of straw, therefore, it can be used to screen lentil varieties for fodder quality. Furthermore, acid detergent fibre can accurately predict in vitro organic matter digestibility (R2 = 0.9) and metabolisable energy (R2 = 0.8). Straw yield weakly correlated (r = 0.39, P < 0.001) with grain yield while no relation (P > 0.05) was found between grain yield. CONCLUSION: The possibility to simultaneously improve grain yield and nutritive traits of lentil straw. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluation of desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) hay as a basal diet for growing local sheep in Ethiopia.

The study was conducted to determine feed intake, digestibility, and body weight (BW) change of Washera sheep fed on desho grass and natural pasture hay as a basal diet and supplemented with concentrate mixtures. Twenty-five intact male sheeps with body weight of 19.4 ± 1.89 kg (mean ± SD) were used in randomized complete block design. The dietary treatments were 100% natural pasture hay (NPH) (T1), 75% NPH + 25% desho grass hay (DGH) (T2), 50% NPH + 50% DGH (T3), 25% NPH + 75% DGH (T4), and 100% DGH (T5). Equal amount of concentrate mixture (CM) (300 g DM/day/h) was supplemented in all of the five treatments. The result of laboratory chemical analysis revealed that the CP content of the basal diets increased with increased proportion of desho grass hay inclusion in the treatments at the expense of natural pasture hay. Total DM, OM, CP, NDF, and ADF intake and digestibility was significant (P < 0.05) and in the increasing order of T1 < T2 < T3 < T4 < T5. The average daily body weight gain (ADG) of experimental sheep was significantly (P < 0.05) higher as proportion of desho grass increased from 0 to 100% in the basal diet. The result indicated that desho grass can be used as a basal diet for local sheep with better performance than natural pasture hay-based diets.

Supplementing diets of Awassi ewes with olive cake and tomato pomace: on-farm recovery of effects on yield, composition and fatty acid profile of the milk.

Two experiments were carried out in Syria with the purpose of investigating to which extent the effects of including 30% olive cake (replacing parts of forage and concentrate) or tomato pomace (replacing concentrate) in the diet, described under controlled on-station conditions, can be recovered on farm. A total of 180 lactating Awassi ewes (three farms per experiment, 15 ewes per treatment) were fed either control diets or test feed diets over a period of 7 weeks. Milk yield was measured bi-weekly and milk composition was analysed for gross physicochemical composition and fatty acid (FA) profile. Both feeds reduced milk yield (-10%) and milk protein content, whereas milk fat content was increased by tomato pomace. Both feeds resulted in similar changes in milk FA profile, namely less saturated and polyunsaturated FA and more monounsaturated FA including 18:1 trans FA. Tomato pomace and olive cake also resulted in increased n-6:n-3 FA ratios, while the proportion of the conjugated linoleic acids was not affected by either treatment. In conclusion, the response of the ewes on farm was clear and similar in nature for most of milk-related traits as that found on station, but lower in magnitude.

Feasibility of pedigree recording and genetic selection in village sheep flocks of smallholder farmers.

Pedigree recording and genetic selection in village flocks of smallholder farmers have been deemed infeasible by researchers and development workers. This is mainly due to the difficulty of sire identification under uncontrolled village breeding practices. A cooperative village sheep-breeding scheme was designed to achieve controlled breeding and implemented for Menz sheep of Ethiopia in 2009. In this paper, we evaluated the reliability of pedigree recording in village flocks by comparing genetic parameters estimated from data sets collected in the cooperative village and in a nucleus flock maintained under controlled breeding. Effectiveness of selection in the cooperative village was evaluated based on trends in breeding values over generations. Heritability estimates for 6-month weight recorded in the village and the nucleus flock were very similar. There was an increasing trend over generations in average estimated breeding values for 6-month weight in the village flocks. These results have a number of implications: the pedigree recorded in the village flocks was reliable; genetic parameters, which have so far been estimated based on nucleus data sets, can be estimated based on village recording; and appreciable genetic improvement could be achieved in village sheep selection programs under low-input smallholder farming systems.

Optimization of selection for growth in Menz sheep while minimizing inbreeding depression in fitness traits.

The genetic trends in fitness (inbreeding, fertility and survival) of a closed nucleus flock of Menz sheep under selection during ten years for increased body weight were investigated to evaluate the consequences of selection for body weight on fitness. A mate selection tool was used to optimize in retrospect the actual selection and matings conducted over the project period to assess if the observed genetic gains in body weight could have been achieved with a reduced level of inbreeding. In the actual selection, the genetic trends for yearling weight, fertility of ewes and survival of lambs were 0.81 kg, -0.00026% and 0.016% per generation. The average inbreeding coefficient remained zero for the first few generations and then tended to increase over generations. The genetic gains achieved with the optimized retrospective selection and matings were highly comparable with the observed values, the correlation between the average breeding values of lambs born from the actual and optimized matings over the years being 0.99. However, the level of inbreeding with the optimized mate selections remained zero until late in the years of selection. Our results suggest that an optimal selection strategy that considers both genetic merits and coancestry of mates should be adopted to sustain the Menz sheep breeding program.

A contextual ICT model to explain adoption of mobile applications in developing countries: A case study of Tunisia.

In Tunisia, agriculture is the main source of livelihood for more than 75% of small and subsistence farmers with minimal use of technology. The use of information and communication technology (ICT),such as mobile applications, represents a pertinent opportunity for these smallholders to access agricultural innovation and market information and improve their farming technologies and farm management. Thus, ICT can act as a replacement to foster access to innovation for this category of farmers. Unfortunately, the underuse of mobile applications has contributed to low and slow adoption of agricultural innovation and consequently the benefits of this technology have not been attained. The purpose of this study is to identify the factors affecting the adoption of Short Message Service (SMS) through a contextual ICT model for livestock, olive crop, and beekeeping. Data were collected from 200 small-scale beekeepers, 225 olive growers, and 140 livestock breeders selected in Jendouba, Kairouan, and Zaghouan in Tunisia. The objective of this paper is to examine the factors that influence mobile applications using the partial least squares structural equation modelling technique, for livestock, olive crop, and beekeeping agricultural activities. The results showed that the final ICT-induced structural models were highly predictive of the use of SMS and its increased adoption. Factors affecting the use of SMS differed according to the farming system. The major perceived factor affecting the use of SMS was 'observability' for livestock farmers, 'compatibility' for olive growers, and 'information quality' for beekeepers. Understanding these factors by taking into account the specificity of the agricultural activity leads to a better understanding of the adoption of ICT tools by smallholder farmers in Tunisia.

Going to scale-From community-based to population-wide genetic improvement and commercialized sheep meat supply in Ethiopia.

Community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) have shown, at pilot scale, to be effective and beneficial in achieving genetic progress and in improving livelihoods of smallholder communities. In Ethiopia 134 sheep and goat CBBPs were operational producing their own improved rams and bucks. Based on experience the implementation of further programs is possible with appropriate private and public support. A different challenge is the efficient dissemination of the improved genetics produced in current CBBPs to create population-wide economic impact. We present a framework applied to the Ethiopian Washera sheep breed to meet this challenge. We propose the establishment of a genetic improvement structure that supports a meat commercialization model based on the integration of community-based breeding program cooperatives, client communities and complementary services such as fattening enterprises. We calculated that the recently established 28 community-based breeding programs in the Washera breeding tract can provide genetically improved rams to 22% of the four million head. To reach the whole population 152 additional CBBPs are needed. We simulated the genetic improvements obtainable in the current 28 CBBPs assuming realized genetic progress in CBBPs of a similar breed and calculated the expected additional lamb carcass meat production after 10 years of selection to be 7 tons and the accumulated discounted benefit 327 thousand USD. These benefits could be increased if the CBBPs are linked to client communities by providing them with improved rams: additional meat production would be 138 tons with a value of 3,088 thousand USD. The total meat production of the existing Washera CBBPs was calculated at 152 tons and the joint meat production of CBBPs if integrated with client communities would be 3,495 tons. A full integration model, which includes enterprises purchasing lambs for fattening, can produce up to 4,255 tons of meat. We conclude that Washera CBBPs cooperatives can benefit from a higher level of organization to produce population-wide genetic improvement and economic benefits. Unlike in the dairy and chicken industries, for low input sheep and goat smallholder systems the proposed commercialization model puts breeder cooperatives at the center of the operation. Cooperatives need to be capacitated and supported to become fully functional business ventures.

How to succeed in implementing community-based breeding programs: Lessons from the field in Eastern and Southern Africa.

Breeding programs involving either centralized nucleus schemes and/or importation of exotic germplasm for crossbreeding were not successful and sustainable in most Africa countries. Community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) are now suggested as alternatives that aim to improve local breeds and concurrently conserve them. Community-based breeding program is unique in that it involves the different actors from the initial phase of design up until implementation of the programs, gives farmers the knowledge, skills and support they need to continue making improvements long into the future and is suitable for low input systems. In Ethiopia, we piloted CBBPs in sheep and goats, and the results show that they are technically feasible to implement, generate genetic gains in breeding goal traits and result in socio-economic impact. In Malawi, CBBPs were piloted in local goats, and results showed substantial gain in production traits of growth and carcass yields. CBBPs are currently being integrated into goat pass-on programs in few NGOs and is out-scaled to local pig production. Impressive results have also been generated from pilot CBBPs in Tanzania. From experiential monitoring and learning, their success depends on the following: 1) identification of the right beneficiaries; 2) clear framework for dissemination of improved genetics and an up/out scaling strategy; 3) institutional arrangements including establishment of breeders' cooperatives to support functionality and sustainability; 4) capacity development of the different actors on animal husbandry, breeding practices, breeding value estimation and sound financial management; 5) easy to use mobile applications for data collection and management; 6) long-term technical support mainly in data management, analysis and feedback of estimated breeding values from committed and accessible technical staff; 7) complementary services including disease prevention and control, proper feeding, and market linkages for improved genotypes and non-selected counterparts; 8) a system for certification of breeding rams/bucks to ensure quality control; 9) periodic program evaluation and impact assessment; and 10) flexibility in the implementation of the programs. Lessons relating to technical, institutional, community dynamics and the innovative approaches followed are discussed.

The African Goat Improvement Network: a scientific group empowering smallholder farmers.

The African Goat Improvement Network (AGIN) is a collaborative group of scientists focused on genetic improvement of goats in small holder communities across the African continent. The group emerged from a series of workshops focused on enhancing goat productivity and sustainability. Discussions began in 2011 at the inaugural workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya. The goals of this diverse group were to: improve indigenous goat production in Africa; characterize existing goat populations and to facilitate germplasm preservation where appropriate; and to genomic approaches to better understand adaptation. The long-term goal was to develop cost-effective strategies to apply genomics to improve productivity of small holder farmers without sacrificing adaptation. Genome-wide information on genetic variation enabled genetic diversity studies, facilitated improved germplasm preservation decisions, and provided information necessary to initiate large scale genetic improvement programs. These improvements were partially implemented through a series of community-based breeding programs that engaged and empowered local small farmers, especially women, to promote sustainability of the production system. As with many international collaborative efforts, the AGIN work serves as a platform for human capacity development. This paper chronicles the evolution of the collaborative approach leading to the current AGIN organization and describes how it builds capacity for sustained research and development long after the initial program funds are gone. It is unique in its effectiveness for simultaneous, multi-level capacity building for researchers, students, farmers and communities, and local and regional government officials. The positive impact of AGIN capacity building has been felt by participants from developing, as well as developed country partners.

Using the community-based breeding program (CBBP) model as a collaborative platform to develop the African Goat Improvement Network-Image collection protocol (AGIN-ICP) with mobile technology for data collection and management of livestock phenotypes.

Introduction: The African Goat Improvement Network Image Collection Protocol (AGIN-ICP) is an accessible, easy to use, low-cost procedure to collect phenotypic data via digital images. The AGIN-ICP collects images to extract several phenotype measures including health status indicators (anemia status, age, and weight), body measurements, shapes, and coat color and pattern, from digital images taken with standard digital cameras or mobile devices. This strategy is to quickly survey, record, assess, analyze, and store these data for use in a wide variety of production and sampling conditions. Methods: The work was accomplished as part of the multinational African Goat Improvement Network (AGIN) collaborative and is presented here as a case study in the AGIN collaboration model and working directly with community-based breeding programs (CBBP). It was iteratively developed and tested over 3 years, in 12 countries with over 12,000 images taken. Results and discussion: The AGIN-ICP development is described, and field implementation and the quality of the resulting images for use in image analysis and phenotypic data extraction are iteratively assessed. Digital body measures were validated using the PreciseEdge Image Segmentation Algorithm (PE-ISA) and software showing strong manual to digital body measure Pearson correlation coefficients of height, length, and girth measures (0.931, 0.943, 0.893) respectively. It is critical to note that while none of the very detailed tasks in the AGIN-ICP described here is difficult, every single one of them is even easier to accidentally omit, and the impact of such a mistake could render a sample image, a sampling day's images, or even an entire sampling trip's images difficult or unusable for extracting digital phenotypes. Coupled with tissue sampling and genomic testing, it may be useful in the effort to identify and conserve important animal genetic resources and in CBBP genetic improvement programs by providing reliably measured phenotypes with modest cost. Potential users include farmers, animal husbandry officials, veterinarians, regional government or other public health officials, researchers, and others. Based on these results, a final AGIN-ICP is presented, optimizing the costs, ease, and speed of field implementation of the collection method without compromising the quality of the image data collection.

Molecular characterization of Ethiopian indigenous goat populations.

Six Ethiopian indigenous goat populations viz. Gumuz, Agew, Begia-Medir, Bati, Abergelle, and Central Abergelle were genotyped for 15 microsatellite markers recommended by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and International Society for Animal Genetics. A total of 158 individual goats were tested to assess genetic variations within and between the goat populations in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia. The markers revealed 100% polymorphism across six goat populations indicating the presence of genetic diversity, which is an important variable to measure genetic variability within and between populations. The mean observed and expected heterozygosity values ranged from 0.56 (Central Abergelle) to 0.68 (Bati) and 0.59 (Abergelle) to 0.69 (Agew goat), respectively. The lowest genetic distance was observed between Begia-Medir and Central Abergelle (0.039), and the largest distances between Agew and Abergelle (0.140) and Gumuz and Abergelle (0.169). Neighbor-joining and the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean methods with bootstrap value of 1,000 was used which grouped the six goat populations into two major groups viz. the Abergelle goat cluster as one group and the Agew, Gumuz, Bati, Begia-Medir, and Central Abergelle goats as the second group. In our study, the obtained higher total variation within the goat populations (95%) confirms a close relatedness of the studied goat ecotypes, which might have happened due to the existence of uncontrolled animal breeding strategies resulting from uncontrolled movement of animals through various market routes and agricultural extension systems. The study contributed to the genetic characterization of Ethiopian indigenous goat populations and demonstrated the usefulness of the 15 microsatellite makers for biodiversity studies in goats.