Monitoring HIV Drug Resistance: Early Warning Indicators to Assess Performance of Thailand's Antiretroviral Treatment Program.

OBJECTIVE: To describe trends in Thailand's antiretroviral treatment (ART) program performance assessed by HIV drug resistance early warning indicators (EWIs), as recommended by WHO, between 2009 and 2013. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Seven EWIs were monitored, viral load (VL) testing coverage, VL suppression, retention in ART, lost to follow-up (LTFU), antiretrovirals (ARVs) dispensing practices, on-time pill pick-up, and pharmacy stock-outs. Data from ART adult patients in National Health Security Office Scheme were analyzed except for pharmacy stock-outs, which were reported from hospitals. Aggregated averages were calculated for each EWI. Chi-square for trend was applied to measure significant changes. RESULTS: By September 2013, 174,284 adults were receiving ART at 929 hospitals. Over time, improvement in VL testing coverage (53.8% in 2009 to 79.8% in 2013) was observed. VL suppression and on-time pill pick up rates were well above 90%. Rates of retention in ART declined from 84.0 to 82.9%, whereas LTFU rates increased from 8.3 to 9.2% (p<0.001). Prescriptions with inappropriate ARVs decreased from 0.32 to 0.10% (p<0.001). Of reporting hospitals, 96.1%, 96.3%, and 96.2% observed no ARVs stock-out between 2011 and 2013. CONCLUSION: EWI is a useful tool to monitor ART program performance and to identify area where improvement is needed.

Considerations for oral cholera vaccine use during outbreak after earthquake in Haiti, 2010-2011.

Oral cholera vaccines (OCVs) have been recommended in cholera-endemic settings and preemptively during outbreaks and complex emergencies. However, experience and guidelines for reactive use after an outbreak has started are limited. In 2010, after over a century without epidemic cholera, an outbreak was reported in Haiti after an earthquake. As intensive nonvaccine cholera control measures were initiated, the feasibility of OCV use was considered. We reviewed OCV characteristics and recommendations for their use and assessed global vaccine availability and capacity to implement a vaccination campaign. Real-time modeling was conducted to estimate vaccine impact. Ultimately, cholera vaccination was not implemented because of limited vaccine availability, complex logistical and operational challenges of a multidose regimen, and obstacles to conducting a campaign in a setting with population displacement and civil unrest. Use of OCVs is an option for cholera control; guidelines for their appropriate use in epidemic and emergency settings are urgently needed.

Rapid assessment of cholera-related deaths, Artibonite Department, Haiti, 2010.

We evaluated a high (6%) cholera case-fatality rate in Haiti. Of 39 community decedents, only 23% consumed oral rehydration salts at home, and 59% did not seek care, whereas 54% of 48 health facility decedents died after overnight admission. Early in the cholera epidemic, care was inadequate or nonexistent.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to treatment and prevention of cholera, Haiti, 2010.

In response to the recent cholera outbreak, a public health response targeted high-risk communities, including resource-poor communities in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. A survey covering knowledge and practices indicated that hygiene messages were received and induced behavior change, specifically related to water treatment practices. Self-reported household water treatment increased from 30.3% to 73.9%.

Risk factors early in the 2010 cholera epidemic, Haiti.

During the early weeks of the cholera outbreak that began in Haiti in October 2010, we conducted a case-control study to identify risk factors. Drinking treated water was strongly protective against illness. Our results highlight the effectiveness of safe water in cholera control.

Epidemic cholera in a crowded urban environment, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

We conducted a case-control study to investigate factors associated with epidemic cholera. Water treatment and handwashing may have been protective, highlighting the need for personal hygiene for cholera prevention in contaminated urban environments. We also found a diverse diet, a possible proxy for improved nutrition, was protective against cholera.

Early diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus in infants using polymerase chain reaction on dried blood spots in Botswana's national program for prevention of mother-to-child transmission.

BACKGROUND: Botswana has high antenatal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence (33.4%). The public health system provides free services for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) and antiretroviral therapy, which can reduce vertical HIV transmission from 35% to <5%. Infant HIV diagnosis is challenging in resource-limited settings, and HIV prevalence among HIV-exposed infants in Botswana is unknown. Dried blood spot (DBS) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) provides a feasible method to assess PMTCT programs and identify HIV-infected children. METHODS: We trained staff in 15 clinics and a hospital to obtain DBS on HIV-exposed infants age 6 weeks to 17 months receiving routine care. Samples were sent to the national HIV reference laboratory. Roche Amplicor 1.5 DNA PCR testing was performed. RESULTS: Between June-December 2005, 1931 HIV-exposed infants age 6 weeks to 17 months were tested for HIV, of whom 136 (7.0%) were HIV infected. Among infants

Implementation of a Test, Treat, and Prevent HIV program among men who have sex with men and transgender women in Thailand, 2015-2016.

INTRODUCTION: Antiretroviral therapy reduces the risk of serious illness among people living with HIV and can prevent HIV transmission. We implemented a Test, Treat, and Prevent HIV Program among men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women at five hospitals in four provinces of Thailand to increase HIV testing, help those who test positive start antiretroviral therapy, and increase access to pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). METHODS: We implemented rapid HIV testing and trained staff on immediate antiretroviral initiation at the five hospitals and offered PrEP at two hospitals. We recruited MSM and transgender women who walked-in to clinics and used a peer-driven intervention to expand recruitment. We used logistic regression to determine factors associated with prevalent HIV infection and the decision to start antiretroviral therapy and PrEP. RESULTS: During 2015 and 2016, 1880 people enrolled. Participants recruited by peers were younger (p<0.0001), less likely to be HIV-infected (p<0.0001), and those infected had higher CD4 counts (p = 0.04) than participants who walked-in to the clinics. Overall, 16% were HIV-positive: 18% of MSM and 9% of transgender women; 86% started antiretroviral therapy and 46% of eligible participants started PrEP. A higher proportion of participants at hospitals with one-stop HIV services started antiretroviral therapy than other hospitals. Participants who started PrEP were more likely to report sex with an HIV-infected partner (p = 0.002), receptive anal intercourse (p = 0.02), and receiving PrEP information from a hospital (p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: We implemented a Test, Treat, and Prevent HIV Program offering rapid HIV testing and immediate access to antiretroviral therapy and PrEP. Peer-driven recruitment reached people at high risk of HIV and people early in HIV illness, providing an opportunity to promote HIV prevention services including PrEP and early antiretroviral therapy. Sites with one-stop HIV services had a higher uptake of antiretroviral therapy and PrEP.

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission and voluntary counseling and testing programme data: what is their utility for HIV surveillance?

OBJECTIVE: Antenatal clinic (ANC)-based surveillance through unlinked anonymous testing (UAT) for HIV without informed consent provides solid long-term trend data in resource-constrained countries with generalized epidemics. The rapid expansion of the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) programmes prompts the question regarding their utility for HIV surveillance and their potential to replace UAT-based ANC surveillance. METHODS: Four presentations on the use of PMTCT or VCT data for HIV surveillance were presented at a recent international conference. The main findings are presented in this paper, and the operational and epidemiological aspects of using PMTCT or VCT data for surveillance are considered. RESULTS: VCT data in Uganda confirm the falling trend in HIV prevalence observed in ANC surveillance. Thailand, a country with nationwide PMTCT coverage and a very high acceptance of HIV testing, has replaced UAT data in favor of PMTCT data for surveillance. Studies from Botswana and Kenya showed that PMTCT-based HIV prevalences was similar, but the quality and availability of the PMTCT data varied. CONCLUSION: The strength of UAT lies in the absence of selection bias and the availability of individual data. Conversely, the quantity of VCT and PMTCT programme testing data often exceed those in UAT, but may be subject to bias due to self-selection or test refusal. When using VCT or PMTCT data for surveillance, investigators must consider these caveats, as well as their varying data quality, accessibility, and availability of individual records.

HIV prevalence and risk behavior among clients of female sex workers in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.

OBJECTIVE: To assess socio-demographic and behavioural characteristics of clients of female sex workers in Abidjan, and to determine their HIV prevalence and related risk factors. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study among clients of female sex workers in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. METHODS: A trained interviewer approached clients leaving the room of a female sex worker and invited them for an interview using a structured questionnaire, and to provide a saliva sample. Saliva was tested for HIV antibodies by the GACELISA assay (Murex, Dartford, UK). RESULTS: A total of 526 clients agreed to participate, and 423 (80.4%) provided a saliva sample. Reported condom use was very high, 92.7% said they always use condoms and 95.4% reported condom use during the visit preceding the interview. The overall HIV prevalence among the clients who provided a saliva sample was 13.4%. Older age and being married or cohabitating was significantly associated with HIV infection in multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS: HIV prevalence appears to be relatively low, and condom use is high among clients of female sex workers in Abidjan. Existing HIV prevention efforts among female sex workers and among the general population should be sustained and reinforced.

Differences in HIV-2 plasma viral load and immune activation in HIV-1 and HIV-2 dually infected persons and those infected with HIV-2 only in Abidjan, Côte D'Ivoire.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether blood plasma levels of HIV-2 RNA viral loads and immune activation markers differ between persons infected with HIV-2 only and those dually infected with HIV-1 and HIV-2. METHODS: Between September 1996 and February 2000, we collected, analyzed and compared levels of HIV-2 RNA in plasma and immune activation markers among 52 persons infected with HIV-2 alone and 75 with confirmed dual infection. We also compared viral load and immune activation in patients who were infected with HIV-1 only and those who were dually infected. RESULTS: When we conducted a CD4 T-cell count-stratified multivariate analysis of HIV-2 viral load, controlling for difference in CD4 T-cell counts, age and sex: at < 200 x 10 CD4 T cells/l, HIV-2 viral load was 2.0 log10 copies/ml lower in dually infected patients than in HIV-2 only patients (P < 0.0001). At CD4 T-cell counts between 200 x 10 and 500 x 10/l, HIV-2 viral load was 0.3 log10 copies/ml lower in dually infected patients (P = 0.45). However, at CD4 T-cells counts > 500 x 10/l, HIV-2 viral load was 0.9 log10 copies/ml higher in dually infected patients (P < 0.0001). Dually infected persons with undetectable HIV-2 viral loads had significantly higher median levels of CD8 T cells expressing CD38 (P < 0.001) and HLA-DR (P = 0.01) than HIV-2 only infected patients. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that in dual infection, the level of HIV-2 replication depends on the immune status of the patients, with HIV-1 out-replicating HIV-2 as disease progress.

Changes in plasma HIV-1-RNA viral load and CD4 cell counts, and lack of zidovudine resistance among pregnant women receiving short-course zidovudine.

OBJECTIVE: To describe changes in HIV-1 plasma viral load (VL) and CD4 cell counts and to assess zidovudine resistance associated with a short course of oral zidovudine during late pregnancy. METHODS: From April 1996 to February 1998 in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, 280 HIV-1-seropositive women were randomly assigned at 36 weeks' gestation to receive zidovudine (300 mg) or placebo twice a day, and then one tablet every 3 h from the onset of labor until delivery. Blood samples obtained every 2 weeks until delivery, then at 2 and 4 weeks, and 3 or 6 months after delivery were tested from selected women based on duration of therapy for plasma VL and CD4 cell counts, and samples from 20 women in the zidovudine group were tested by DNA sequencing for the presence of zidovudine resistance mutations. RESULTS: In the zidovudine group, the median reduction in plasma VL (log(10) copies/ml) was -0.48 after 2 weeks (P = 0.02 versus placebo), -0.48 after 4 weeks (P = 0.06), -0.80 after 6 weeks (P = 0.29) of treatment, -0.12 at delivery (P = 0.11), +0.21 at 2 weeks (P = 0.83), +0.17 at 4 weeks (P = 0.69), and +0.21 at 3 months (P = 0.56) postpartum. Median CD4 cell counts were higher in the zidovudine than in the placebo group after 2, 4, and 6 weeks of treatment (P < 0.05). No mutations associated with zidovudine resistance were identified in any of the samples tested. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that a short course of zidovudine has no adverse HIV-1 virological consequences for the mother.

Virologic and immunologic outcomes and programmatic challenges of an antiretroviral treatment pilot project in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.

BACKGROUND: In Côbte d'Ivoire, a pilot project was developed by UNAIDS and the Ministry of Health to improve access to AIDS care, including antiretroviral therapy, for adults and children infected with HIV. This evaluation of the project is the first to provide results of a large number of HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy in West Africa. METHODS: We evaluated records of persons who presented for care from August 1998 to August 2000 at six accredited centers in Abidjan. Patients were treated with two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (2NRTI) or highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). RESULTS: Of 2878 patients who were screened, 2351 (83%) were HIV-infected and eligible (CD4 T lymphocyte count < 500 x 10(6) cells/l or plasma HIV-RNA level > 10 000 copies/ml) for antiretroviral therapy. Of those who were eligible, 81% were symptomatic, 63% had a CD4 cell count < 200 x 10(6) cells/l, 12% had previously taken antiretroviral drugs, and 56% returned to the clinic for follow-up. Of the patients screened, 768 (27%) were started on antiretroviral therapy, including 450 on HAART, 296 on 2NRTI, and 22 on other regimens. We analyzed data from 480 HIV-1-infected adults, who were naive to therapy, were prescribed HAART or 2NRTI, and had at least one clinic visit after starting therapy. In an intent-to-treat analysis of patients who received HAART, the estimated plasma HIV-1 RNA level was approximately 1.9 log10 copies/ml (80-fold) lower, while estimated CD4 cell count was > 100 x 10(6) cells/l higher than baseline values, after 1 year of therapy. Approximately 25% of adults on 2NRTI and 50% of those on HAART had < 200 copies/ml, after 1 year of therapy. The probability of an adverse event occurring within 6 months after starting therapy was 0.20. The probability of survival for at least 1 year was 0.84 (95% confidence interval, 0.80-0.89). CONCLUSION: After starting antiretroviral therapy, these HIV-1-infected patients in West Africa had similar virologic and immunologic outcomes, probability of an adverse event, and estimated survival, as patients enrolled in clinical trials in the USA and Europe. However, only one-third of eligible patients received therapy, highlighting the importance of providing adequate education and support for initiating and adhering to therapy in this and similar programmes.

Changes in levels of immune activation and reconstitution markers among HIV-1-infected Africans receiving antiretroviral therapy.

OBJECTIVE: To describe changes in immune activation and reconstitution markers among HIV-1-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. METHODS: Between November 1998 and February 2001, we analyzed changes in immune activation and reconstitution markers among 52 patients. Good virologic responders (n = 26) were defined as those who had suppressed and maintained plasma viral load (VL) below the detection limit of the assay for at least 12 months. Poor virologic responders (n = 26) were defined as those with a detectable VL at 6 and 12 months after beginning ART. RESULTS: Of the 26 good virologic responders, 20 (77%) were on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) compared with one (4%) of the poor responders. Among the 26 good responders, baseline median levels of CD38+CD8+ T cells were elevated, but had decreased significantly at 6 months (P < 0.001) and at 12 months of therapy (P < 0.001). Median levels of HLA-DR+CD8+ T cells also decreased from baseline at 6 months (P < 0.001) and at 12 months of therapy (P < 0.001). Levels of CD62L+CD4+ T cells increased steadily during the 6 and 12 months of therapy and reached levels observed among HIV-negative blood donors (P = 0.07). Among the 26 poor responders, median levels of CD38+CD8+ T cells decreased significantly at 12 months of therapy (P = 0.006), but were higher than levels in blood donors (P = 0.005). Levels of HLA-DR+CD8+ T cells decreased significantly at 12 months of therapy (P < 0.001). Levels of CD62L+CD4+ decreased over time. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that HAART can be successfully used in African populations with elevated baseline immune activation markers.

Prevalence of genotypic and phenotypic HIV-1 drug-resistant strains among patients who have rebound in viral load while receiving antiretroviral therapy in the UNAIDS-Drug Access Initiative in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of genotypic and phenotypic antiretroviral (ARV) drug-resistant HIV-1 strains among patients with viral load rebound while receiving ARV therapy in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. METHODS: Between August 1998 and April 2000, we selected all patients (n = 241) who had received ARV drug therapy for at least 6 months in the UNAIDS-Drug Access Initiative (DAI), in Abidjan. We analyzed for genotypic and phenotypic drug resistance among 97 (40%) of the 241 patients who had a rebound in plasma viral load, defined as an initial decrease of > 0.5 log10 copies/ml followed by a subsequent increase of > 0.25 log10 copies/ml. RESULTS: Of the viruses isolated from the 97 patients, 86 (88.7%) had usable sequences and 68 (79%) of the 86 patients had genotypic resistance to at least one reverse transcriptase inhibitor (RTI) or protease inhibitor (PI). Resistant mutations were found for zidovudine in 50 (78%) of 64 patients who had received the drug, 11 (68.7%) of 16 patients on lamivudine, for nevirapine in two (2%), for indinavir in one (1%), and for ritonavir in one (1%). Phenotypic resistance to at least one nucleoside RTI was seen in 45 (56%) of the 80 patients tested, to non-nucleoside RTIs in eight (10%), and to PIs in one (1.3%). Multivariate regression analysis showed factors associated with resistance to be initial treatment with dual therapy (P = 0.04) compared with highly active antiretroviral therapy, and maximal initial viral load response (P = 0.006). CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate a high prevalence of ARV drug resistance associated with dual ARV therapy. These results indicate the limited role for dual ARV therapy.

Positive association between beta-chemokine-producing T cells and HIV type 1 viral load in HIV-infected subjects in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.

The role of beta-chemokines in controlling HIV replication in vivo is still controversial. Therefore, the association between HIV-1 plasma viral load and the capacity of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells to produce beta-chemokines was studied in 28 antiretroviral drug-naïve HIV-1-infected female sex workers in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. Percentages of beta-chemokine-positive T cells were measured in peripheral blood mononuclear cells by flow cytometry after intracellular staining for RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T expressed and secreted), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha, and MIP-1beta. HIV-1-infected subjects had higher percentages of MIP-1alpha- and MIP-1beta-positive CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells (p < 0.02) and of RANTES-positive CD8(+) T cells (p = 0.054) than uninfected controls. Percentages of RANTES- and MIP-1beta-positive CD8(+) T cells correlated directly with HIV-1 plasma viral load (p < 0.02). Percentages of beta-chemokine-positive CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells correlated directly with percentages of HLA-DR-positive T cells (p < 0.02) and inversely (except RANTES in CD4(+) T cells) with absolute numbers of CD4(+) T cells (p < 0.05) in peripheral blood. These data indicate that increased percentages of beta-chemokine-producing T cells in HIV-1-infected subjects correlate with disease progression and are a sign of viremia-driven chronic T cell activation.

Perceptions of door-to-door HIV counselling and testing in Botswana.

Prevalence of HIV infection in Botswana is among the highest in the world, at 23.9% of 15 - 49-year-olds. Most HIV testing is conducted in voluntary counselling and testing centres or medical settings. Improved access to testing is urgently needed. This qualitative study assessed and documented community perceptions about the concept of door-to-door HIV counselling and rapid testing in two of the highest-prevalence districts of Botswana. Community members associated many positive benefits with home-based, door-to-door HIV testing, including convenience, confidentiality, capacity to increase the number of people tested, and opportunities to increase knowledge of HIV transmission, prevention and care through provision of correct information to households. Community members also saw the intervention as increasing opportunities to engage and influence family members and to role model positive behaviours. Participants also perceived social risks and dangers associated with home-based testing including the potential for conflict, coercion, stigma, and psychological distress within households. Community members emphasised the need for individual and community preparation, including procedures to protect confidentiality, provisions for psychological and social support, and links to appropriate services for HIV-positive persons.

Prevalence of transmitted HIV drug resistance in Botswana: lessons learned from the HIVDR-Threshold Survey conducted among women presenting for routine antenatal care as part of the 2007 national sentinel survey.

The emergence and spread of transmitted drug resistance (TDR) poses a major threat to the success of the rapidly expanding antiretroviral treatment (ART) programs in resource-limited countries. The World Health Organization recommends the use of the HIV Drug Resistance Threshold Survey (HIVDR-TS) as an affordable means to monitor the presence of TDR in these settings. We report our experiences and results of the 2007 HIVDR-TS in Botswana, a country with one of the longest-existing national public ART programs in Africa. The HIVDR-TS and HIV-1 incidence testing were performed in the two largest national sites as part of the 2007 antenatal Botswana Sentinel Survey. The HIVDR-TS showed no significant drug resistance mutations (TDR less than 5%) in one site. TDR prevalence, however, could not be ascertained at the second site due to low sample size. The agreement between HIVDR-TS eligibility criteria and laboratory-based methodologies (i.e., BED-CEIA and LS-EIA) in identifying recently HIV-1 infected adults was poor. Five years following the establishment of Botswana's public ART program, the prevalence of TDR remains low. The HIVDR-TS methodology has limitations for low-density populations as in Botswana, where the majority of antenatal sites are too small to recruit sufficient numbers of patients. In addition, the eligibility criteria (age <25 years and parity (first pregnancy)) of the HIVDR-TS performed poorly in identifying recent HIV-1 infections in Botswana. An alternative sampling strategy should be considered for the surveillance of HIVDR in Botswana and similar geographic settings.

Validation of AIDS-related mortality in Botswana.

BACKGROUND: Mortality data are used to conduct disease surveillance, describe health status and inform planning processes for health service provision and resource allocation. In many countries, HIV- and AIDS-related deaths are believed to be under-reported in government statistics. METHODS: To estimate the extent of under-reporting of HIV- and AIDS-related deaths in Botswana, we conducted a retrospective study of a sample of deaths reported in the government vital registration database from eight hospitals, where more than 40% of deaths in the country in 2005 occurred. We used the consensus of three physicians conducting independent reviews of medical records as the gold standard comparison. We examined the sensitivity, specificity and other validity statistics. RESULTS: Of the 5276 deaths registered in the eight hospitals, 29% were HIV- and AIDS-related. The percentage of HIV- and AIDS-related deaths confirmed by physician consensus (positive predictive value) was 95.4%; however, the percentage of non-HIV- and non-AIDS-related deaths confirmed (negative predictive value) was only 69.1%. The sensitivity and specificity of the vital registration system was 55.7% and 97.3%, respectively. After correcting for misclassification, the percentage of HIV- and AIDS--related deaths was estimated to be in the range of 48.8% to 54.4%, depending on the definition. CONCLUSION: Improvements in hospitals and within government offices are necessary to strengthen the vital registration system. These should include such strategies as training physicians and coders in accurate reporting and recording of death statistics, implementing continuous quality assurance methods, and working with the government to underscore the importance of using mortality statistics in future evidence-based planning.

Entertainment-education radio serial drama and outcomes related to HIV testing in Botswana.

Makgabaneng is an entertainment-education radio serial drama written and produced in Botswana to promote prevention of HIV. This effort is part of the national response to HIV/AIDS. Broadcast of the serial drama began in August 2001, and two new 15-minute episodes air each week. We examined associations between exposure to Makgabaneng and outcomes related to HIV testing, including stigmatizing attitudes, intention to be tested, talking with a partner about testing, and testing for HIV, among 555 sexually active respondents. The four measures of exposure to Makgabaneng were frequency of listening, duration of listening, talking about the program, and attentiveness to and identification with relevant characters. Data were collected approximately 18 months after the drama began airing. We found positive associations between exposure to the program and intermediate outcomes, including lower level of stigmatizing attitudes, stronger intention to have HIV testing, and talking to a partner about testing. Although associations were identified with all four measures of exposure, increased duration of listening was associated with more positive outcomes than the other measures. This finding suggests that longer term exposure to entertainment-education programming may be important for behavior change.