Essential role of p53 phosphorylation by p38 MAPK in apoptosis induction by the HIV-1 envelope.

The proapoptotic activity of the transcription factor p53 critically depends on the phosphorylation of serine 46 (p53S46P). Here, we show that syncytia containing p53S46P could be detected in lymph node biopsies from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 carriers, in the brain of patients with HIV-1-associated dementia and in cocultures of HeLa expressing the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein complex (Env) with HeLa cells expressing CD4. In this latter model, cell death was the result of a sequential process involving cell fusion, nuclear fusion (karyogamy), phosphorylation of serine 15 (p53S15P), later on serine 46 (p53S46P), and transcription of p53 target genes. Cytoplasmic p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) was found to undergo an activating phosphorylation (p38T180/Y182P [p38 with phosphorylated threonine 180 and tyrosine 182]) before karyogamy and to translocate into karyogamic nuclei. p38T180/Y182P colocalized and coimmunoprecipitated with p53S46P. Recombinant p38 phosphorylated recombinant p53 on serine 46 in vitro. Inhibition of p38 MAPK by pharmacological inhibitors, dominant-negative p38, or small interfering RNA, suppressed p53S46P (but not p53S15P), the expression of p53-inducible genes, the conformational activation of proapoptotic Bax and Bak, the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, and consequent apoptosis. p38T180/Y182P was also detected in HIV-1-induced syncytia, in vivo, in patients' lymph nodes and brains. Dominant-negative MKK3 or MKK6 inhibited syncytial activation of p38, p53S46P, and apoptosis. Altogether, these findings indicate that p38 MAPK-mediated p53 phosphorylation constitutes a critical step of Env-induced apoptosis.

Fc(epsilon)RI and FcgammaRIII/CD16 differentially regulate atopic dermatitis in mice.

The high-affinity IgE receptor Fc(epsilon)RI and, in some models, the low-affinity IgG receptor Fc(epsilon)RIIII/CD16 play an essential role in allergic diseases. In human skin, they are present on APCs and effector cells recruited into the inflamed dermis. FcRgamma is a subunit shared, among other FcRs, by Fc(epsilon)RI and CD16 and is essential to their assembly and signal transduction. Using an experimental model reproducing some features of human atopic dermatitis and specific FcR-deficient mice, we have herein delineated the respective contribution of Fc(epsilon)RIand Fc(epsilon)RIII/CD16 to the pathology. We demonstrate that symptoms of atopic dermatitis are completely absent in FcRgamma-deficient animals but only partially inhibited in either Fc(epsilon)RI- or FcgammaRIII/CD16-deficient animals. Absence or attenuation of the pathology is correlated to increased skin expression of regulatory IL-10 and Foxp3. While Fc(epsilon)RI controls both Th1 and Th2 skin response, mast cell recruitment into draining lymph nodes and IgE production, CD16 regulates only Th2 skin response, as well as T cell proliferation and IgG1 production. This isotype-specific regulation by the cognate FcR is associated to a differential regulation of IL-4 and IL-21 expression in the draining lymph nodes. Fc(epsilon)RIand CD16 thus contribute to atopic dermatitis but differentially regulate immune responses associated with the disease. Targeting both IgE/Fc(epsilon)RI and IgG/CD16 interactions might represent an efficient therapeutic strategy for allergic diseases.

NF-kappaB and p53 are the dominant apoptosis-inducing transcription factors elicited by the HIV-1 envelope.

The coculture of cells expressing the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein complex (Env) with cells expressing CD4 results into cell fusion, deregulated mitosis, and subsequent cell death. Here, we show that NF-kappaB, p53, and AP1 are activated in Env-elicited apoptosis. The nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) super repressor had an antimitotic and antiapoptotic effect and prevented the Env-elicited phosphorylation of p53 on serine 15 and 46, as well as the activation of AP1. Transfection with dominant-negative p53 abolished apoptosis and AP1 activation. Signs of NF-kappaB and p53 activation were also detected in lymph node biopsies from HIV-1-infected individuals. Microarrays revealed that most (85%) of the transcriptional effects of HIV-1 Env were blocked by the p53 inhibitor pifithrin-alpha. Macroarrays led to the identification of several Env-elicited, p53-dependent proapoptotic transcripts, in particular Puma, a proapoptotic "BH3-only" protein from the Bcl-2 family known to activate Bax/Bak. Down modulation of Puma by antisense oligonucleotides, as well as RNA interference of Bax and Bak, prevented Env-induced apoptosis. HIV-1-infected primary lymphoblasts up-regulated Puma in vitro. Moreover, circulating CD4+ lymphocytes from untreated, HIV-1-infected donors contained enhanced amounts of Puma protein, and these elevated Puma levels dropped upon antiretroviral therapy. Altogether, these data indicate that NF-kappaB and p53 cooperate as the dominant proapoptotic transcription factors participating in HIV-1 infection.

Mitochondrial fusion and fission in the control of apoptosis.

Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) determines the point-of-no-return of most if not all signal-transduction cascades leading to cell death. It has been postulated that the molecular mechanism leading to MOMP could depend on the activation of the mitochondrial fission machinery mediated by proteins from the dynamin superfamily. However, recent work suggests that, depending on the specific apoptosis induction pathway, mitochondrial fission can occur independently or downstream from MOMP. Moreover, fragmentation of the mitochondrial network can inhibit MOMP and apoptosis in response to a particular range of lethal stimuli, namely those relying on Ca(2+) waves. Failure to transmit the Ca(2+) wave through disconnected mitochondria then interrupts the propagation of the pro-apoptotic signal. Thus, mitochondrial fission can either enhance or reduce the probability of MOMP and consequent cell death, depending on the initial lethal stimulus.

Eosinophil-derived IFN-gamma induces airway hyperresponsiveness and lung inflammation in the absence of lymphocytes.

BACKGROUND: Eosinophils are key players in T(H)2-driven pathologies, such as allergic lung inflammation. After IL-5- and eotaxin-mediated tissue recruitment, they release several cytotoxic and inflammatory mediators. However, their exact contribution to asthma remains controversial. Indeed, in human subjects anti-IL-5 treatment inhibits eosinophilia but not antigen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). Likewise, lung fibrosis is abrogated in 2 strains of eosinophil-deficient mice, whereas AHR is inhibited in only one of them. Finally, eosinophils have been shown to attract T(H)2 lymphocytes at the inflammatory site. OBJECTIVE: The ability of eosinophils to promote AHR and lung inflammation independently of lymphocytes was investigated. METHODS: Adoptive transfers of resting or activated eosinophils from IL-5 transgenic mice were performed into naive BALB/c mice, mice with severe combined immunodeficiency, and IFN-gamma-deficient BALB/c recipients. RESULTS: Adoptively transferred eosinophils induced lung inflammation, fibrosis, collagen deposition, and AHR not only in BALB/c mice but also in recipient mice with severe combined immunodeficiency. Surprisingly, IFN-gamma expression was increased in lungs from eosinophil-transferred animals. Furthermore, IFN-gamma neutralization in recipients partially inhibited eosinophil-induced AHR. Moreover, IFN-gamma-deficient eosinophils or eosinophils treated with a blocking anti-IFN-gamma receptor antibody failed to induce AHR in IFN-gamma-deficient recipients. Finally, in vitro and at low concentrations, IFN-gamma increased eosinophil peroxidase release, potentiated chemotaxis, and prolonged survival, suggesting the existence of an autocrine mechanism. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the important and previously unsuspected contribution of eosinophils to lung inflammation independently of lymphocytes through production of IFN-gamma, the prototypical T(H)1 cytokine.

A novel druglike spleen tyrosine kinase binder prevents anaphylactic shock when administered orally.

BACKGROUND: The spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) is recognized as a potential pharmaceutical target for the treatment of type I hypersensitivity reactions including allergic rhinitis, urticaria, asthma, and anaphylaxis because of its critical position upstream of immunoreceptor signaling complexes that regulate inflammatory responses in leukocytes. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to improve the selectivity of anti-Syk therapies by impeding the interaction of Syk with its cellular partners, instead of targeting its catalytic site. METHODS: We have previously studied the inhibitory effects of the anti-Syk intracellular antibody G4G11 on Fc epsilonRI-induced release of allergic mediators. A compound collection was screened by using an antibody displacement assay to identify functional mimics of G4G11 that act as potential inhibitors of the allergic response. The effects of the selected druglike compounds on mast cell activation were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS: We discovered compound 13, a small molecule that inhibits Fc epsilonRI-induced mast cell degranulation in vitro and anaphylactic shock in vivo. Importantly, compound 13 was efficient when administered orally to mice. Structural analysis, docking, and site-directed mutagenesis allowed us to identify the binding cavity of this compound, located at the interface between the 2 Src homology 2 domains and the interdomain A of Syk. CONCLUSION: We have isolated a new class of druglike compounds that modulate the interaction of Syk with some of its macromolecular substrates implicated in the degranulation pathway in mast cells.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha regulates skin inflammation and humoral response in atopic dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) alpha, beta/delta, and gamma are ligand-activated transcription factors belonging to the nuclear receptor superfamily. In addition to their regulatory role on lipid and glucose metabolism, they exert anti-inflammatory properties. In skin both PPAR-alpha and PPAR-beta/delta regulate keratinocyte proliferation/differentiation and contribute to wound healing. The 3 PPAR isoforms are expressed by several cell types recruited into the dermis during inflammation. OBJECTIVE: We have investigated the role of PPAR-alpha in the regulation of atopic dermatitis (AD), a common skin inflammatory disease. METHODS: We chose a mouse model of inflammatory dermatosis with immunologic features of AD and used epicutaneous sensitization with ovalbumin in the absence of adjuvant, which mimics the human pathology. RESULTS: On antigen sensitization, PPAR-alpha-deficient mice display increased epidermal thickening, dermal recruitment of inflammatory cells, lung inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness, and IgE and IgG2a production compared with their wild-type counterparts. Increased inflammation was correlated to an enhancement of TH2 and, to a greater extent, TH1 responses and to increased skin expression of nuclear factor kappaB. Interestingly, PPAR-alpha expression was decreased in eczematous skin from patients with AD compared with skin from nonatopic donors, suggesting that defective PPAR-alpha expression might contribute to the pathology. Topical application of WY14643, a specific PPAR-alpha agonist, significantly decreased antigen-induced skin inflammation in the AD model. CONCLUSION: PPAR-alpha acts as a negative regulator of skin inflammation in AD.

Pathogen induced regulatory cell populations preventing allergy through the Th1/Th2 paradigm point of view.

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated an inverse correlation between prevalence of helminth infections and allergic diseases both associated to Th2 immune responses. On the other hand, such an inverse correlation has also been evidenced between allergies and bacterial infections, associated to Th1 responses. In this review, we will examine and compare the various mechanisms by which Th1- or Th2-inducing infectious agents regulate the development of atopic diseases. We will emphasize the key role of various regulatory cell populations associated to the immune responses toward pathogen.

Cell death by mitotic catastrophe: a molecular definition.

The current literature is devoid of a clearcut definition of mitotic catastrophe, a type of cell death that occurs during mitosis. Here, we propose that mitotic catastrophe results from a combination of deficient cell-cycle checkpoints (in particular the DNA structure checkpoints and the spindle assembly checkpoint) and cellular damage. Failure to arrest the cell cycle before or at mitosis triggers an attempt of aberrant chromosome segregation, which culminates in the activation of the apoptotic default pathway and cellular demise. Cell death occurring during the metaphase/anaphase transition is characterized by the activation of caspase-2 (which can be activated in response to DNA damage) and/or mitochondrial membrane permeabilization with the release of cell death effectors such as apoptosis-inducing factor and the caspase-9 and-3 activator cytochrome c. Although the morphological aspect of apoptosis may be incomplete, these alterations constitute the biochemical hallmarks of apoptosis. Cells that fail to execute an apoptotic program in response to mitotic failure are likely to divide asymmetrically in the next round of cell division, with the consequent generation of aneuploid cells. This implies that disabling of the apoptotic program may actually favor chromosomal instability, through the suppression of mitotic catastrophe. Mitotic catastrophe thus may be conceived as a molecular device that prevents aneuploidization, which may participate in oncogenesis. Mitotic catastrophe is controlled by numerous molecular players, in particular, cell-cycle-specific kinases (such as the cyclin B1-dependent kinase Cdk1, polo-like kinases and Aurora kinases), cell-cycle checkpoint proteins, survivin, p53, caspases and members of the Bcl-2 family.

The cell cycle checkpoint kinase Chk2 is a negative regulator of mitotic catastrophe.

Fusion between nonsynchronized cells leads to the formation of heterokarya which transiently activate Cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1)/cyclin B1 and enter the prophase of the cell cycle, where they arrest due to a loss of Cdk1/cyclin B1 activity, activate p53, disorganize centrosomes, and undergo apoptosis. Here, we show that the down regulation of Cdk1/cyclin B is secondary to the activation of the DNA structure checkpoint kinase Chk2. Thus, syncytia generated by the fusion of asynchronous HeLa cells contain elevated levels of active Chk2 but not Chk1. Chk2 bearing the activating phosphorylation on threonine-68 accumulates in BRCA1 nuclear bodies when the cells arrest at the G2/M boundary. Inhibition of Chk2 by transfection of a dominant-negative Chk2 mutant or a chemical inhibitor, debromohymenialdesine, stabilizes centrosomes, maintains high cyclin B1 levels, and allows for a prolonged activation of Cdk1. Under these conditions, multinuclear HeLa syncytia do not arrest at the G2/M boundary and rather enter mitotis and subsequently die during the metaphase of the cell cycle. This mitotic catastrophe is associated with the activation of the pro-apoptotic caspase-3. Inhibition of caspases allows the cells to go beyond the metaphase arrest, indicating that apoptosis is responsible for cell death by mitotic catastrophe. In another, completely different model of mitotic catastrophe, namely 14.3.3 sigma-deficient HCT116 colon carcinoma cells treated with doxorubicin, Chk2 activation was also found to be deficient as compared to 14.3.3 sigma-sufficient controls. Inhibition of Chk2 again facilitated the induction of mitotic catastrophe in HCT116 wild-type cells. In conclusion, a conflict in cell cycle progression or DNA damage can lead to mitotic catastrophe, provided that the checkpoint kinase Chk2 is inhibited. Inhibition of Chk2 thus can sensitize proliferating cells to chemotherapy-induced apoptosis.

Mitotic catastrophe constitutes a special case of apoptosis whose suppression entails aneuploidy.

A conflict in cell cycle progression or DNA damage can lead to mitotic catastrophe when the DNA structure checkpoints are inactivated, for instance when the checkpoint kinase Chk2 is inhibited. Here we show that in such conditions, cells die during the metaphase of the cell cycle, as a result of caspase activation and subsequent mitochondrial damage. Molecular ordering of these phenomena reveals that mitotic catastrophe occurs in a p53-independent manner and involves a primary activation of caspase-2, upstream of cytochrome c release, followed by caspase-3 activation and chromatin condensation. Suppression of caspase-2 by RNA interference or pseudosubstrate inhibitors as well as blockade of the mitochondrial membrane permeabilization prevent the mitotic catastrophe and allow cells to further proceed the cell cycle beyond the metaphase, leading to asymmetric cell division. Heterokarya generated by the fusion of nonsynchronized cells can be driven to divide into three or more daughter cells when Chk2 and caspases are simultaneously inhibited. Such multipolar divisions, resulting from suppressed mitotic catastrophe, lead to the asymmetric distribution of cytoplasm (anisocytosis), DNA (anisokaryosis) and chromosomes (aneuploidy). Similarly, in a model of DNA damage-induced mitotic catastrophe, suppression of apoptosis leads to the generation of aneuploid cells. Our findings delineate a molecular pathway through which DNA damage, failure to arrest the cell cycle and inhibition of apoptosis can favor the occurrence of cytogenetic abnormalities that are likely to participate in oncogenesis.

Mitochondrial membrane permeabilization is a critical step of lysosome-initiated apoptosis induced by hydroxychloroquine.

Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is a lysosomotropic amine with cytotoxic properties. Here, we show that HCQ induces signs of lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP), such as the decrease in the lysosomal pH gradient and the release of cathepsin B from the lysosomal lumen, followed by signs of apoptosis including caspase activation, phosphatidylserine exposure, and chromatin condensation with DNA loss. HCQ also induces mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP), as indicated by the insertion of Bax into mitochondrial membranes, the conformational activation of Bax within mitochondria, the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, and the loss of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential. To determine the molecular order among these events, we introduced inhibitors of LMP (bafilomycin A(1)), MMP (Bcl-X(L), wild-type Bcl-2, mitochondrion-targeted Bcl-2, or viral mitochondrial inhibitor of apoptosis from cytomegalovirus), and caspases (Z-VAD.fmk) into the system. Our data indicate that caspase-independent MMP is rate-limiting for LMP-mediated caspase activation. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts lacking the expression of both Bax and Bak are resistant against hydroxychloroquine-induced apoptosis. Such Bax(-/-) Bak(-/-) cells manifest normal LMP, yet fail to undergo MMP and subsequent cell death. The data reported herein indicate that LMP does not suffice to trigger caspase activation and that Bax/Bak-dependent MMP is a critical step of LMP-induced cell death.

Mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis in HIV-1 infection.

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), involves the apoptotic destruction of lymphocytes and, in the context of AIDS-associated pathologies, of neurons and myocytes. Several proteins encoded by HIV-1 trigger apoptosis by inducing permeabilization of the mitochondrial membrane. Several nucleoside analogs used clinically in the treatment of HIV-1 inhibit the replication of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and/or increase the frequency of mtDNA mutations. These cause severe mitochondriopathy and might contribute to lipodystrophy, the complication associated with HIV-1 therapy. HIV-1 protease inhibitors can inhibit apoptosis at the mitochondrial level, which might help to alleviate lymphopenia. Thus, it appears that the pathogenesis of AIDS, and the pharmacological interventions and complications associated with this disease, affect the mitochondrial regulation of apoptosis, which, therefore, largely determines the outcome of HIV-1 infection.

Quantitation of mitochondrial alterations associated with apoptosis.

Mitochondria undergo two major changes during early apoptosis. On the one hand, the outer mitochondrial membrane becomes permeable to proteins, resulting in the release of soluble intermembrane proteins (SIMPs) from the mitochondrion. On the other hand, the inner mitochondrial membrane transmembrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)) is reduced. These changes occur in most, if not all, models of cell death and can be taken advantage of to detect apoptosis at an early stage. Here, we delineate methods for the detection of alterations in the DeltaPsi(m), based on the incubation of cells with cationic lipophilic fluorochromes, the uptake of which is driven by the DeltaPsi(m). Certain DeltaPsi(m)-sensitive dyes can be combined with other fluorochromes to detect simultaneously cellular viability, plasma membrane exposure of phosphatidylserine residues, or the mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In addition, we describe an immunofluorescence method for the detection of two functionally important proteins translocating from mitochondria, namely, the caspase co-activator cytochrome c and the caspase-independent death effector apoptosis inducing factor (AIF).

Mitochondrion-dependent caspase activation by the HIV-1 envelope.

Cells expressing the envelope glycoprotein complex (Env) encoded by the human immunodeficiency virus can fuse with cells expressing Env receptors (CD4 and CXCR4). The resulting syncytia undergo apoptosis. We developed a cytofluorometric assay for the quantitation of syncytium formation and syncytial apoptosis. Using this methodology, we show that caspase activation in syncytia is inhibited by pharmacological or genetic intervention on cyclin-dependent kinase-1, p53, and mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP). Thus, transfection of fusing cells with the viral mitochondrial inhibitor of apoptosis encoded by cytomegalovirus, a specific inhibitor of MMP, prevented the mitochondrial cytochrome c release and abolished simultaneously the activation of caspase-3. Conversely, inhibition of caspases did not prevent MMP. These results indicate that Env-elicited syncytial apoptosis involves the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway.

Mitochondrial apoptosis induced by the HIV-1 envelope.

The envelope glycoprotein complex (Env), encoded by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), kills uninfected cells expressing CD4 and/or the chemokine receptor CXCR4 or CCR5, via at least three independent mechanisms. First, the soluble Env product gp120 can induce the apoptotic cell death of lymphocytes, neurons, and myocardiocytes, via interaction with surface receptors. Second, Env present on the surface of HIV-1 infected cells can transiently interact with cells expressing CD4 and CXCR4/CCR5, thereby provoking a hemifusion event that results in the death of the uninfected cell. Third, the interaction between Env on infected cells and its receptors on uninfected cells can result in syncytium formation. Such syncytia undergo apoptosis after a phase of latency. In several models of Env-induced apoptosis, early signs of mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP) become manifest. Such signs include a loss of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential and the release of cytochrome c and AIF. The mechanisms of Env-triggered apoptotic MMP may involve an elevation of cytosolic Ca(2+), reactive oxygen species and/or the transcriptional activation of p53, with the consequent expression of pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bax, which permeabilizes mitochondrial membranes. The implications of these findings for the pathophysiology of HIV-1 infection is discussed.

Mitochondria, the killer organelles and their weapons.

Apoptosis is a cell-autonomous mode of death that is activated to eradicate superfluous, damaged, mutated, or aged cells. In addition to their role as the cell's powerhouse, mitochondria play a central role in the control of apoptosis. Thus, numerous pro-apoptotic molecules act on mitochondria and provoke the permeabilization of mitochondrial membranes. Soluble proteins contained in the mitochondrial intermembrane space are released through the outer membrane and participate in the organized destruction of the cell. Several among these lethal proteins can activate caspases, a class of cysteine proteases specifically activated in apoptosis, whereas others act in a caspase-independent fashion, by acting as nucleases (e.g., endonuclease G), nuclease activators (e.g., apoptosis-inducing factor), or serine proteases (e.g., Omi/HtrA2). In addition, mitochondria can generate reactive oxygen species, following uncoupling and/or inhibition of the respiratory chain. The diversity of mitochondrial factors participating in apoptosis emphasizes the central role of these organelles in apoptosis control and unravels novel mechanisms of cell death execution.

Mitochondrion-targeted apoptosis regulators of viral origin.

During coevolution with their hosts, viruses have "learned" to intercept or to activate the principal signal transducing pathways leading to cell death. A number of proteins from pathophysiologically relevant viruses are targeted to mitochondria and regulate (induce or inhibit) the apoptosis-associated permeabilization of mitochondrial membranes. Such proteins are encoded by human immunodeficiency virus 1, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, human T-cell leukemia virus-1, hepatitis B virus, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein Barr virus, among others. Within mitochondria, such apoptosis regulators from viral origin can target distinct proteins from the Bcl-2 family and the permeability transition pore complex including the adenine nucleotide translocase, cyclophilin D, the voltage-dependent anion channel, and the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor. Thus, viral proteins can regulate apoptosis at the mitochondrial level by acting on a variety of different targets.

Preapoptotic chromatin condensation upstream of the mitochondrial checkpoint.

When added for a short period (2-4 h) to cells, the kinase inhibitor staurosporine (STS), can trigger double strand breaks, the formation of nuclear foci containing phosphorylated H2AX, Chk2, and p53, a decrease in transcription, and a minor degree of peripheral chromatin condensation. This "preapoptotic chromatin condensation" (PACC) occurs before mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP) and caspase activation become detectable and is not inhibited by Z-VAD-fmk or Bcl-2. PACC is followed by classical apoptosis, when cells are cultured overnight, even when STS is removed from the system. After overnight incubation, STS-pretreated cells manifest mitochondrial cytochrome c release, caspase activation, phosphatidylserine exposure, and apoptotic DNA fragmentation. Caspase or MMP inhibitors did not influence the advent of PACC yet did suppress the evolution of PACC toward apoptosis. Importantly, two unrelated MMP inhibitors (viral mitochondrial inhibitor of apoptosis (vMIA) from cytomegalovirus and mitochondrion-targeted Bcl-2) had a larger range of effects than the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk. Caspase inhibition simply prevented the transition from PACC to apoptosis yet did not reverse PACC and did not restore transcription. In contrast, Bcl-2 and vMIA allowed for the repair of the DNA lesions, correlating with the reestablishment of active transcription. PACC could also be induced by a gross perturbation of RNA synthesis or primary DNA damage. Again, inhibition of MMP (but not that of caspases) reversed PACC induced by these stimuli. In synthesis, our data reveal the unexpected capacity of STS to induce DNA lesions and suggest qualitative differences in the cytoprotective and DNA repair-inducing potential of different apoptosis inhibitors.

Sequential involvement of Cdk1, mTOR and p53 in apoptosis induced by the HIV-1 envelope.

Syncytia arising from the fusion of cells expressing the HIV-1-encoded Env gene with cells expressing the CD4/CXCR4 complex undergo apoptosis following the nuclear translocation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), mTOR-mediated phosphorylation of p53 on Ser15 (p53(S15)), p53-dependent upregulation of Bax and activation of the mitochondrial death pathway. p53(S15) phosphorylation is only detected in syncytia in which nuclear fusion (karyogamy) has occurred. Karyogamy is secondary to a transient upregulation of cyclin B and a mitotic prophase-like dismantling of the nuclear envelope. Inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase-1 (Cdk1) prevents karyogamy, mTOR activation, p53(S15) phosphorylation and apoptosis. Neutralization of p53 fails to prevent karyogamy, yet suppresses apoptosis. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from HIV-1-infected patients exhibit an increase in cyclin B and mTOR expression, correlating with p53(S15) phosphorylation and viral load. Cdk1 inhibition prevents the death of syncytia elicited by HIV-1 infection of primary CD4 lymphoblasts. Thus, HIV-1 elicits a pro-apoptotic signal transduction pathway relying on the sequential action of cyclin B-Cdk1, mTOR and p53.