Optimal foraging, not biogenetic law, predicts spider orb web allometry.

The biogenetic law posits that the ontogeny of an organism recapitulates the pattern of evolutionary changes. Morphological evidence has offered some support for, but also considerable evidence against, the hypothesis. However, biogenetic law in behavior remains underexplored. As physical manifestation of behavior, spider webs offer an interesting model for the study of ontogenetic behavioral changes. In orb-weaving spiders, web symmetry often gets distorted through ontogeny, and these changes have been interpreted to reflect the biogenetic law. Here, we test the biogenetic law hypothesis against the alternative, the optimal foraging hypothesis, by studying the allometry in Leucauge venusta orb webs. These webs range in inclination from vertical through tilted to horizontal; biogenetic law predicts that allometry relates to ontogenetic stage, whereas optimal foraging predicts that allometry relates to gravity. Specifically, pronounced asymmetry should only be seen in vertical webs under optimal foraging theory. We show that, through ontogeny, vertical webs in L. venusta become more asymmetrical in contrast to tilted and horizontal webs. Biogenetic law thus cannot explain L. venusta web allometry, but our results instead support optimization of foraging area in response to spider size.

Mineral deposition in bacteria-filled and bacteria-free calcium bodies in the crustacean Hyloniscus riparius (Isopoda: Oniscidea).

Crustacean calcium bodies are epithelial sacs which contain a mineralized matrix. The objectives of this study were to describe the microscopic anatomy of calcium bodies in the terrestrial isopod Hyloniscus riparius and to establish whether they undergo molt-related structural changes. We performed 3D reconstruction of the calcium bodies from paraffin sections and analyzed their structure with light and electron microscopy. In addition, we analyzed the chemical composition of their mineralized matrices with micro-Raman spectroscopy. Two pairs of these organs are present in H. riparius. One pair is filled with bacteria while the other pair is not. In non-molting animals, the bacteria-filled calcium bodies contain apatite crystals and the bacteria-free calcium bodies enclose CaCO3-containing concretions with little organic matrix. During preparation for molt, an additional matrix layer is deposited in both pairs of calcium bodies. In the bacteria-filled calcium bodies it contains a mixture of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate, whereas only calcium carbonate is present in bacteria-free calcium bodies. After ecdysis, all mineral components in bacteria-free calcium bodies and the additional matrix layer in bacteria-filled calcium bodies are completely resorbed. During calcium resorption, the apical surface of the calcium body epithelium is deeply folded and electron dense granules are present in spaces between epithelial cells. Our results indicate that the presence of bacteria might be linked to calcium phosphate mineralization. Calcium bodies likely provide a source of calcium and potentially phosphate for the mineralization of the new cuticle after molt. Unlike other terrestrial isopods, H. riparius does not form sternal CaCO3 deposits and the bacteria-free calcium bodies might functionally replace them in this species.