Effects of fungal species, cultivation time, growth substrate, and air exposure velocity on the fluorescence properties of airborne fungal spores.

UNLABELLED: Real-time bioaerosol monitoring is possible with fluorescence based instruments. This study provides information on major factors that can affect the fluorescence properties of airborne fungal spores. Two fluorescence-based bioaerosol detectors, BioScout, and ultraviolet aerodynamic particle sizer (UVAPS), were used to study fluorescent particle fractions (FPFs) of released spores of three fungal species (Aspergillus versicolor, Cladosporium cladosporioides, and Penicillium brevicompactum). Two culture media (agar and gypsum board), three ages of the culture (one week, one month, and four months), and three aerosolization air velocities (5, 15, and 27 m/s) were tested. The results showed that the FPF values for spores released from gypsum were typically lower than for those released from agar indicating that poor nutrient substrate produces spores with lower amounts of fluorescent compounds. The results also showed higher FPF values with lower air velocities in aerosolization. This indicates that easily released fully developed spores have more fluorescent compounds compared to forcibly extracted non-matured spores. The FPFs typically were lower with older samples. The FPF results between the two instruments were similar, except with four-month-old samples. The results can be utilized in field measurements of fungal spores to estimate actual concentrations and compare different instruments with fluorescence-based devices as well as in instrument calibration and testing in laboratory conditions. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: Fluorescence-based instruments are the only choice for real-time detection of fungal spores at the moment. In general, all fluorescence-based bioaerosol instruments are tested against known bacterial and fungal spores in laboratory conditions. This study showed that fungal species, growth substrate, age of culture, and air current exposure rate have an effect on detection efficiency of fungal spores in the fluorescence-based instruments. Therefore, these factors should be considered in the instrument calibration process. The results are also important when interpreting results of fluorescence-based field measurements of fungal spores.

Hybridization of Neotyphodium endophytes enhances competitive ability of the host grass.

• Associations with microbial symbionts may lead to niche differentiation of their host. Vertically transmitted Neotyphodium endophytes of grasses often hybridize in nature. Infection by these hybrid symbionts may result in different host-plant phenotypes from those caused as a result of infection by nonhybrid symbionts. Observations of wild Arizona fescue (Festuca arizonica) populations show that hybrid Neotyphodium-infected (H+) grasses dominate in resource-poor environments, whereas nonhybrid endophyte-infected (NH+) grasses dominate in environments with more resources. We studied the hypothesis that hybridization of endophytes increases stress tolerance of the host. • To test whether hybridization of Neotyphodium affects performance and competitive abilities of the host depending on resources, we conducted a glasshouse experiment where competition, nutrients and watering were manipulated. • H+ plants had greater wet biomass than NH+ and endophyte-free plants, when grown in competition, but only in low-water and low-nutrient treatments. By contrast, NH+ plants did not perform better than H+ or endophyte-free plants regardless of the treatment combination. • Our results suggest that hybridization of symbiotic Neotyphodium endophytes may increase competitive potential of the host in stressful environments and that this hybridization may be underlying niche expansion of Arizona fescue in the environments with low resources.

Heritability of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in German Shepherd dogs.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have revealed that exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is an inherited disease in German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs). Pedigree analyses have suggested an autosomal recessive inheritance model. OBJECTIVE: Test mating of 2 dogs with EPI. ANIMALS: A sire and dam purebred GSD both with EPI and a litter of 6 puppies. METHODS: Test mating and long-term follow-up of offspring. The pancreas was biopsied via laparotomy on 26 occasions. Serum trypsin-like immunoreactivity was measured. Study was approved by Animal Ethics Committee. RESULTS: During the 12-year study period only 2 of the 6 offsprings developed pancreatic acinar atrophy (PAA). In 1 puppy, end-stage PAA and in the other puppy partial PAA was diagnosed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: PAA is not a congenital disease in GSDs. This study provided evidence that PAA is not inherited in a simple autosomal recessive fashion.

Lymphatic dwelling filarioid nematodes in reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus, (cervidae) in Finland, identified as Rumenfilaria andersoni Lankester & Snider, 1982 (nematoda: Onchocercidae: Splendidofilariinae).

A filarioid nematode inhabiting the lymphatic vessels of the subserosal rumen and mesenteries associated with a high prevalence of its microfilariae in peripheral blood was observed in Finnish reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in 2004 and 2006. Adult specimens were collected by dissecting lymphatic vessels from slaughtered animals, where some of the nematodes were seen through the wall of the dilated vessels as thin white winding threads obscuring the vessel. The morphology of adult worms and microfilaria is described based on light and scanning electron microscopy. These filariae belong to the subfamily Splendidofilariinae of the Onchocercidae and resemble Rumenfilaria andersoni, recovered from different host and localization, the ruminal veins of Alces alces in Canada. Comparison of paratypes of this species revealed only minor differences which were not sufficient to separate the filarioid parasitic in R. tarandus in Finland and we identify the nematode as R. andersoni. However, the findings suggest two different parasite populations. The finalizing of this taxonomic question in the future requires an integrated approach, in which the DNA-based and morphological identifications are consistent.

A new scalp formulation of calcipotriol plus betamethasone dipropionate compared with each of its active ingredients in the same vehicle for the treatment of scalp psoriasis: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: There is a need for new treatments for scalp psoriasis, as many topical treatments are cosmetically unacceptable and difficult to apply, resulting in poor compliance. OBJECTIVES: To compare the efficacy and safety of a new, once-daily, two-compound scalp formulation (Xamiol; LEO Pharma A/S, Ballerup, Denmark) containing calcipotriol 50 microg g(-1) plus betamethasone 0.5 mg g(-1) (as dipropionate), with the active ingredients as single compounds in the same vehicle. METHODS: This 8-week, multicentre, double-blind, parallel-group study, randomized adult patients with scalp psoriasis involving > 10% of the scalp to the two-compound scalp formulation (n = 568), betamethasone dipropionate 0.5 mg g(-1) (n = 563), or calcipotriol 50 microg g(-1) (n = 286). The primary efficacy measure was the proportion of patients with 'absence of disease' or 'very mild disease' according to investigators' assessments at week 8. RESULTS: The proportion of patients with 'absence of disease' or 'very mild disease' at week 8 was significantly higher in the two-compound group (68.4%) than the betamethasone dipropionate (61.0%, P = 0.0079) or calcipotriol (43.4%, P < 0.0001) groups. The proportion of patients rating their scalp psoriasis as 'clear' or 'almost clear' was significantly higher for the two-compound scalp formulation (69.6%) than for betamethasone dipropionate (59.9%, P = 0.0006) or calcipotriol (44.7%, P < 0.0001). The incidence of lesional/perilesional adverse events was lower in the two-compound and betamethasone dipropionate groups than the calcipotriol group. CONCLUSIONS: The two-compound scalp formulation was well tolerated and more effective in the treatment of scalp psoriasis than either of its individual components in the same vehicle.

Canine intestinal helminths in Finland: prevalence, risk factors and endoparasite control practices.

In this survey, the prevalence of canine gastrointestinal helminths in Finland was investigated by coprological examination (n = 541) and possible risk factors for helminth infections in dogs were analysed. In addition, the dog owners (n = 296) completed a questionnaire about use of anthelmintics, sources of information about parasites and antiparasitic treatments and reasons for choosing the drugs. The prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths was 5.9%. Eggs from four different species were identified in the faecal samples. Toxocara canis eggs were present in 17 dogs (3.1%), Uncinaria stenocephala eggs in 14 dogs (2.6%) and Diphyllobothrium latum eggs in 2 dogs (0.4%). Moreover, one sample contained eggs of Trichuris vulpis (0.2%). Kennel housing and visits abroad were identified as risk factors for T. canis and U. stenocephala infections. Most dogs (86.0%) received anthelmintic treatment at least once a year. Hunting dogs were dewormed least; one-third was treated less than once a year. Approximately, half of the owners occasionally changed the anthelmintic used. The most important trait of the anthelmintic was its broad spectrum, fenbendazole being the most commonly chosen. Veterinarians, dog magazines and dog breeders were the predominant sources of information concerning parasites and deworming strategies.

Lymphocyte migration into the skin: the role of lymphocyte homing receptor (CD44) and endothelial cell antigen (HECA-452).

Lymphocyte migration into the lymphoid organs and sites of inflammation is controlled by lymphocyte-endothelial cell interaction at sites where lymphocytes exit from the blood. Expression of Hermes-defined CD44 class of lymphocyte homing receptor and HECA-452 antigen specific for high-endothelium-mediating physiologic lymphocyte extravasation was studied in dermatitis herpetiformis, celiac disease, psoriasis, mycosis fungoides, lymphocytosis cutis, atopic dermatitis, and allergic contact dermatitis. Also, duodenal biopsies of patients suffering from dermatitis herpetiformis or celiac disease were studied for existence of these antigens. Infiltrating lymphocytes in the skin and in the duodenal area expressed homing receptor molecules when studied with monoclonal antibodies, Hermes-1 and Hermes-3, that recognize the CD44 class of molecules involved in lymphocyte binding to high endothelial venules in peripheral lymph nodes, mucosa-associated lymphatic tissues, and inflamed synovium. However, the HECA-452 antigen was not detected on the venules, neither in the skin nor in the duodenum. Even the venules possessing high endothelium morphologically were HECA-452 negative. These findings suggest the CD44 class of lymphocyte homing receptor(s) is also involved in lymphocyte homing to inflamed skin and the duodenal area of the gut. However, on the basis of HECA-452 staining, high endothelial venules in inflamed skin and duodenum are not antigenically identical with high endothelial venules in organized lymphoid tissues. This finding indirectly supports the idea that molecules and/or mechanisms mediating lymphocyte extravasation might be distinct in these organs.

Regional lung deposition and clearance of 99mTc-labeled beclomethasone-DLPC liposomes in mild and severe asthma.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the distribution and clearance of inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate (Bec)-dilauroylphosphatidylcholine (DLPC) liposomes in patients with mild and severe asthma. DESIGN: A 99mTc-labeled Bec-DLPC suspension was delivered via a nebulizer (Aerotech II). Immediately after inhalation, anterior and posterior views of the lungs and an anterior view of the oropharynx were measured by a large field gamma camera with the patient in a supine position. To evaluate the mucociliary clearance of the inhaled liposomes, anterior and posterior lung scans were repeated 1, 2, 4, and 24 h after the aerosol delivery. PATIENTS: Ten patients with mild asthma (FEV1 >80% of the predicted) and 10 patients with severe asthma (FEV1 <60% of the predicted) were included in an open, parallel group study. RESULTS: Clearance is more rapid among patients with severe asthma (p<0.0001). At the 4-h measurement, a mean of 82% (SD, 5.9) of the total pulmonary dose was detected in the lungs of patients with mild asthma while in those with severe asthma the figure was 69% (SD, 10.9). The ratio between central and peripheral deposition was significantly higher for patients with severe asthma than for those having a mild form of the disease; 1.07 (SD, 0.29) and 0.76 (SD, 0.07), respectively (p=0.008). CONCLUSIONS: Inhaled Bec-DLPC liposomes were deposited more centrally in the lower airways of patients with severe asthma than those having a milder form of the disease. The clearance of Bec-DLPC liposomes is strikingly slow in both groups of asthmatic patients. However, due to the more peripheral penetration of inhaled liposomes in patients with mild asthma, the clearance rate in this group was slower than in those with severe asthma.

No impairment of peripheral deposition in novel asthmatics treated with an MDI corticosteroid with spacer.

Pulmonary distribution and lung functions were evaluated during a 4-month inhaled corticosteroid treatment period in 10 steroid-naïve novel asthmatics with normal or slightly reduced lung functions. Patients were given a total daily dose of 1000 microg of beclomethasone dipropionate aerosol twice a day via a pressured metered dose inhaler with a large-volume chamber device (Volumatic, GlaxoSmith Kline, U.K.). Gamma lung scintigraphy and lung function tests were performed before and after 2 months and 4 months. Inhaled 99mTc-labelled beclomethasone dipropionate liposomes were used to assess lung deposition patterns during inhaled steroid therapy. Serum eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) concentration was used as a surrogate marker of asthmatic inflammation. Following beclomethasone treatment, all lung functions were enhanced, but only FVC values showed significant improvement. The FEV1/FVC ratio remained slightly reduced in spite of inhaled corticosteroid therapy. However, the association between changes in improved FVC values and reduced ECP levels proved to be statistically significant. In lung scintigraphy, no evidence of changes in pulmonary deposition patterns were seen during the follow-up period. We conclude that inhaled corticosteroid therapy can lead to improvements in lung functions and surrogate markers of airway inflammation in novel asthma without affecting the peripheral deposition pattern of aerosols.

Possibilities of formoterol to enhance the peripheral lung deposition of the inhaled liposome corticosteroids.

The pulmonary distribution and clearance of 99m-Tc-labelled beclomethasone dipropionate (Bec)--dilauroylphosphatidylcholine (DLPC) were compared in nine asthmatic patients on inhaled steroids after a 1-week medical treatment period of long-acting beta2-agonist formoterol. The patients were given formoterol 12 microg (OxisTurbuhaler) twice daily in addition to their own regular inhaled corticosteroid therapy. Gamma lung scintigraphy and lung function tests were performed before and after formoterol treatment. The bronchodilating effect ofthe combined therapy was significant: 1-week usage of inhaled formoterol enhanced peripheral lung deposition of beclomethasone liposome and thus diminished central/peripheral deposition ratio (C/P ratio). All measured lung function values except FEV1/FVC% improved after the medication period, although statistically significant levels were not reached. A systemic positive connection was seen between enhanced lung functions and greater lung deposition measured as AUC(0-24h)/24 Beclomethasone liposome formulation maintained its long-lasting effect in connection with formoterol treatment. At the 4-h measurement, 76% of the liposome-entrapped radioactivity still remained in the lungs before and 75% after the medication period.

Cellular and humoral immune responses in atrophic lymphocytic pancreatitis in German shepherd dogs and rough-coated collies.

The most common cause for the clinical signs of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) in dogs is pancreatic acinar atrophy (PAA). In the subclinical phase of EPI, before total atrophy occurs, exocrine pancreas is affected by infiltrative lymphocytic inflammation, which gradually leads to selective destruction and atrophy of the acinar tissue.Here, we analyzed the role of cell-mediated and humoral immune mechanisms in the pathogenesis of atrophic lymphocytic pancreatitis in German shepherd dogs and rough-coated collies. Pancreas biopsies and serum samples were obtained from 12 dogs with subclinical EPI (SEPI), 13 dogs with clinical EPI and 13 healthy control dogs. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that, in the subclinical phase, the majority of the infiltrating lymphocytes were T-cells with an almost equal number of CD4+ 'T-helper' and CD8+ 'cytotoxic' T-lymphocytes. The distribution of the two lymphocyte subsets was different. Typically, the CD4+ cells were present in large cellular infiltrates in the affected parenchyma, and the scattered CD8+ cells had infiltrated both the affected and the normal parenchyma. In sections where destruction of acinar parenchyma was present, the CD8+ T-cells were predominant. In cases of marked T-cell infiltration, CD79+ B-lymphocytes and plasma cells, and lysozyme-positive macrophages were also detected. Lymphoid follicle germinal centers with a majority of cells staining positively for CD79 were found. The lymphocytic infiltration in the totally atrophic tissue of dogs with clinical EPI was less prominent. Indirect immunofluorescence staining showed serum antibodies reacting weakly with pancreatic acinar cells in five out of nine dogs with subclinical and three out of 10 dogs with clinical EPI, but not in the control dogs. The results suggest that the tissue destruction is largely T-cell-mediated, although the presence of numerous B-lymphocytes and pancreas-specific antibodies in the sera of some dogs indicate that humoral mechanisms are also involved. In conclusion, this study suggests that the atrophic lymphocytic pancreatitis in German shepherds and rough-coated collies is an autoimmune disease.

Significance of apoptosis and its relationship to antioxidants after ochratoxin A administration in mice.

A study of the appearance of liver apoptosis after ochratoxin A (OTA) administration was performed in male mice. Administration of OTA twice a week for one or two weeks period results in the occurrence of apoptosis in mice"s liver. The presence of intracellular apoptosis bodies was detected at two weeks after toxin treatment. Light microscopic examination demonstrated the presence of eosinophilic globules, often containing apoptotic bodies. They were found within the cytoplasm of intact hepatic cells. The number of apoptotic bodies was further enhanced at two weeks, resulting in 8 fold increases in liver over the control values. No evidence of cell necrosis could be observed by histological and biochemical analysis at one week. However, centrilobular necrosis was evident at two weeks. The ability of the combined antioxidants: Coenzyme Q 10 (CoQ 10), L-carnitine, Zn, Mg, N-acetyl cysteine, vitamin C, vitamin E and selenium or tamoxifen to intervene in apoptosis induced in livers of mice by OTA was also investigated. The inhibition by these scavengers was more clear in mice treated with OTA for one week than those mice treated for two weeks. Treatment with tamoxifen, known in restoration of tumor suppressor function and on induction of programmed cell death (apoptosis), after OTA administration, had no significant inhibition effect on the incidence of apoptotic bodies in liver. Because hepatic glutathione represents the major defence against toxic liver injury, we studied the activity of tissue reduced glutathione (GSH), known to inhibit apoptosis. Our finding showed that two weeks after treatment, OTA caused a decrease of the GSH activity. However, treatment of mice with the combined antioxidants could enhance hepatic antioxidant/detoxification system, as indicated by increase in hepatic reduced glutathione level. In the light of these results, apoptosis was observed after two weeks of OTA administration. We also suggest that use of the combined antioxidants may be of interest in conditions were certain toxin-mediated forms of cell death and/or apoptosis contribute significantly to toxicity.

Comparison of diagnostic methods for detecting gastric Helicobacter-like organisms in dogs and cats.

Diagnostic methods for detecting gastric Helicobacter-like organisms (GHLOs) in dogs and cats were compared. Samples for brush cytology, the urease test and histological examination were collected post mortem from the fundus, corpus and antrum of 10 dogs (17 sample sites from each animal) and 10 cats (14 sample sites each). Samples of tissue from the fundus or corpus were taken for transmission electron microscopy and culture from three and eight dogs, respectively, and from six cats that gave a positive urease test with samples from these regions. In all dogs and in six of the 10 cats, GHLOs were detected by at least one of three methods (brush cytology, urease test or histological examination) in all regions. By brush cytology, GHLOs were demonstrated in all samples from the dogs and the positive cats. In cats, the urease test (60 min) gave a positive result in every sample site; in dogs it gave a positive result in 100% of the corpus samples, in 95% of the fundus samples and in 62% of the antral samples. Histological examination revealed GHLOs in all samples from the fundus and corpus of the dogs and of the positive cats; and in 74% and 91.7% of the antral samples of the dogs and cats, respectively. GHLOs were seen in all dogs and cats studied by transmission electron microscopy, and culture of gastric tissue was successful in 3/8 dogs and 1/6 cats. In this study, brush cytology was thus the most sensitive method for demonstrating GHLOs.

Lung injury leading to respiratory distress syndrome in young Dalmatian dogs.

A progressive pulmonary disease resulting in severe respiratory failure and death in an average of 3 weeks was diagnosed in 11 young Dalmatian dogs. The dogs were from 4 litters, all genetically related by a common ancestor. The initial clinical signs were tachypnea and noisy respiration. Respiratory distress developed shortly before death and was characterized by strenuous and rapid respirations, along with cyanosis and vomiting. On blood gas analysis, there were severe arterial hypoxemia, hypercapnia, and marked alveolar-arterial oxygen difference. Radiographically, a diffuse pattern of alveolar, interstitial, and peribronchial densities was observed in the lungs. Most dogs developed pneumomediastinum and gastroesophageal intussusception in the terminal phase of the disease. There was no response to treatment with antibiotics, corticosteroids, diuretics, or oxygen. At necropsy, the lungs were wet, heavy, and relatively airless. Absence of 1 kidney in 2 dogs and severe internal hydrocephalus in 2 dogs were additional necropsy findings. Pulmonary histopathology included metaplasia and atypia of the alveolar and bronchiolar epithelium, a nonpurulent inflammatory reaction characterized mainly by mononuclear cells and macrophages, eosinophilic hyaline membrane formation, and focal pulmonary fibrosis. The histological manifestations were typical of acute lung injury. Clinically, the findings were consistent with adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), except for the relatively long course. No known risk factors for ARDS, such as trauma, toxin exposure, infection, or endotoxemia could be identified. The relationship of the other abnormalities (ie, renal aplasia, hydrocephalus) to the pulmonary disease also remains obscure. An inherited defect is suspected, because segregation analysis of the 4 litters suggests autosomal recessive inheritance.

Effect of repetitive bronchoalveolar lavage on cytologic findings in healthy dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To determine reference values for cytologic examination results of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and to investigate effects of repeated lavages on pulmonary health and on results of cytologic examination of BALF in dogs. ANIMALS: 16 healthy adult Beagles. PROCEDURE: All dogs underwent pulmonary lavage to obtain BALF. Eleven dogs were repeatedly lavaged 6 times at 5- to 7-week intervals. Analyses for total and differential cell counts and for viability of cells before and after cell processing were performed. Arterial blood gas analysis before and after bronchoalveolar lavage was used to study the safety of the lavage procedure. Histologic and radiologic examinations were used to study effects of repeated lavages on pulmonary health. RESULTS: Mean (+/- SD) cell count was 104 +/- 69 cells/microl, comprising 75 +/- 7% alveolar macrophages, 13 +/- 6% lymphocytes, 5 +/- 4% neutrophils, 4 +/- 5% eosinophils, 2 +/- 2% mast cells, 0.6 +/- 0.7% epithelial cells, and 0.3 +/- 0.4% plasma cells. Centrifugation of samples and washing of cells caused significant cell loss (59 +/- 13%). Repeated lavages did not cause significant variations in cell counts of BALF or results of arterial blood gas analysis, thoracic radiography, or histologic examination of pulmonary specimens. Only a moderate, although significant, decrease in arterial oxygen content was observed after bronchoalveolar lavage. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Analysis indicated that several lavages performed at 5- to 7-week intervals can safely and reliably be used to study the kinetics of pathologic processes in pulmonary tissues or for evaluation of therapeutic efficacy.

Detection and effects of helicobacters in healthy dogs and dogs with signs of gastritis.

OBJECTIVES: To determine prevalence, colonization density, and distribution of helicobacters and gastric histologic findings in healthy dogs and dogs with signs of gastritis; to evaluate association of colonization density and gastric inflammation; and to compare the number of Helicobacter spp with degree of inflammation. DESIGN: Cross-sectional prevalence survey. ANIMALS: 25 healthy dogs and 21 dogs with signs of gastritis. PROCEDURE: During endoscopy, gastric mucosal biopsy specimens were obtained from healthy and affected client-owned dogs. Histologic and cytologic evaluation and results of a urease test were used for detecting helicobacters, which were identified definitively by use of transmission electron microscopy and bacterial culture. RESULTS: Helicobacters were detected in all 25 healthy and 20 of 21 affected dogs. Cytologic examination was a more sensitive method than histologic examination or the urease test. Helicobacters were found least frequently and in fewest number in the antrum in both groups of dogs. Gastric inflammation was evident in both groups of dogs and did not differ significantly between groups. A significant association was not detected between colonization density or the number of Helicobacter spp and degree of gastric inflammation. In both groups, H bizzozeronii, H felis, and H salomonis were cultured. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Histologically verified chronic gastritis is common in dogs with signs of gastritis as well as in healthy dogs. Colonization density of helicobacters was not associated with degree of gastric inflammation in the dogs of our study. It remains to be determined whether certain strains of Helicobacter spp can induce gastritis in dogs.

Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD) in a shipping company.

Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD) is a method used successfully to reduce suffering from stress-related ailments such as insomnia, depression, anger, headaches etc. The resources of the shipping company are very limited and, thus, networking with existing organizations and specialists is necessary to carry out CISD effectively. The present company model has been adopted to take into account various situations and levels of disaster. The model has been adopted at three levels of events:Level 1. Serious accidents on shore, sudden deaths, severe events and threats. Events involving one or only few persons. Level 2. Life-threatening occupational accidents on board ship, suicide of a workmate, sudden death and fire on board ship. Events involving one person or limited group of persons. Level 3. Disasters at sea. Severe events involving all or nearly all persons on board ship. Actions at different levels: Level 1: A leaflet describing CISD, situations where it would be appropriate and where it is available, is given to each sailor. The victim is encouraged to seek CISD from public health care centres, most of which have their own services in Finland. Level 2. Training of about 8 hours is carried out by an experienced crisis psychologist for supervisors and officers on board ship. After the training they are able to identify stressful situations. At each harbour, the shipping company has made agreements with experienced crisis psychologists to act as specialists and contact persons on shore. These nominated psychologists will initiate CISD actions when necessary. If they need extra manpower they will turn to other psychologists. Level 3. In such serious accidents, the company's own resources alone are insufficient to provide effective CISD. All available public and private resources will he needed (health care organizations, Red Cross, Church etc.).

Impacts of increasing ozone on Indian plants.

Increasing anthropogenic and biogenic emissions of precursor compounds have led to high tropospheric ozone concentrations in India particularly in Indo-Gangetic Plains, which is the most fertile and cultivated area of this rapidly developing country. Current ozone risk models, based on European and North American data, provide inaccurate estimations for crop losses in India. During the past decade, several ozone experiments have been conducted with the most important Indian crop species (e.g. wheat, rice, mustard, mung bean). Experimental work started in natural field conditions around Varanasi area in early 2000's, and the use of open top chambers and EDU (ethylene diurea) applications has now facilitated more advanced studies e.g. for intra-species sensitivity screening and mechanisms of tolerance. In this review, we identify and discuss the most important gaps of knowledge and future needs of action, e.g. more systematic nationwide monitoring for precursor and ozone formation over Indian region.